JK 

I 5 § U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 

K C JAMES J. DAVIS. Secretary 

O 1| BUREAU OF NATURALIZATION 

<f Qj^ RICHARD K. CAMPBELL. Commissioner 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK 



A STANDARD COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR 
USE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE 
UNITED STATES FOR THE PREPARATION OF 
THE CANDIDATE FOR THE RESPONSIBILITIES 
OF CITIZENSHIP 



Compiled from material submitted by the State Public Schools to the 
Bureau of Naturalization 



Prepared by 

RAYMOND F. CRIST 

DEPUTY COMMISSIONER OF NATURALIZATION 





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WASHLNGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1921 




Book 



IW^ I 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 

JAMES J. DAVIS. Secretary 

BUREAU OF NATURALIZATION 

RICHARD K. CAMPBELL. Commissioner 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK 



A STANDARD COURSE OF INSTRUCTION FOR 
USE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE 
UNITED STATES FOR THE PREPARATION OF 
THE CANDIDATE FOR THE RESPONSIBILITIES 
OF CITIZENSHIP 



Compiled from material submitted by the State Public Schools to the 
Bureau of Naturalization 



Prepared by 

RAYMOND F. CRIST 

DEPUTY COMMISSIONER OF NATURALIZATION 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1921 




X 



The teacher who will write down any thought to improve the text at 
at any part or point and at once forward it to the Bureau of Naturaliza- 
tion will render a patriotic public service. Available ideas will be incor- 
porated in a new edition. 



LIBRARY OP CONGRESS 



j OOCUMEK I ION 



This book does not become the personal property of the student until 
he has attained final citizenship. 



The Congress of the United States authorized the Bureau of Natural- 
ization to present this book to the candidate for citizenship for his use 
while he is in the citizenship class of this public school. This authority 
was given in the act of Congress approved by the President of the 
United States on May 9, 191 8. 



To 

Born at , , 

(City or town) (Country) 

who has declared his intention to become a citizen of the United States, this book 
is presented to be his personal property after he has become a citizen by the United 
States Government, through the Bureau of Naturalization of the United States Depart- 
ment of Labor, and the public schools of 



By , 

Teacher. 

On , 19.. 

3 



EXTRACTS FROM ADDRESSES BY PRESIDENT WILSON. 

RECEPTION TO NEW CITIZENS, PHIIvADEWHI A , PA., MAY IO, 1915. 

And while you bring all countries with you, you come with a purpose of leav- 
ing all other countries behind you — bringing what is best of their spirit, but not 
looking over your shoulders and seeking to perpetuate what you intended to leave 
behind in them. I certainly would not be one even to suggest that a man cease to 
love the home of his birth and the nation of his origin — these things are very sacred 
and ought not to be put out of our hearts — but it is one thing to love the place where 
you were born and it is another thing to dedicate yourself to the place to which you 
go. You can not dedicate yourself to America unless you become in every respect 
and with every purpose of your will thorough Americans. You can not become 
thorough Americans if you think of yourselves in groups. America does not consist 
of groups. A man who thinks of himself as belonging to a particular national group 
in America has not yet become an American, and the man who goes among you to 
trade upon your nationality is no worthy son to live under the Stars and Stripes. 

My urgent advice to you would be, not only always to think first of America, but 
always, also, to think first of humanity. You do not love humanity if you seek to 
divide humanity into jealous camps. Humanity can be welded together only by 
love, by sympathy, by justice, not by jealousy and hatred. 



FIRST CITIZENSHIP CONVENTION, WASHINGTON, D. C, JULY 13, 1916. 

"You declare this to be a land of liberty and of equality and of justice; have yotl 
made it so by your law?" We ought to be able in our schools, in our night schools, 
and in every other method of instructing these people, to show them that that has 
been our endeavor. 



INTRODUCTION. 

In this form are returned to the field whence they came the methods 
and ideas submitted by the public schools of the United States to the 
Bureau of Naturalization of the United States Department of Labor for 
the formation of a standard course of instruction applicable to the adult 
foreigner who is a candidate for naturalization. By this means the 
United States Government, through the Bureau of Naturalization, has 
obtained the services of the public schools as a national committee in 
this fundamental branch of their work. This is the second manifestation 
of the union of these two forces, together with the State and Federal 
courts exercising naturalization jurisdiction, for the elevation of American 
citizenship in the eyes of the American public and of the entire world by 
establishing a standard of admission to the responsibilities of that estate, 
first, of those who seek that estate by naturalization and, second, of 
those possessing it by the fortune of birth. 

This book has been prepared in response to the emphasis brought home 
to this bureau by the public-school authorities and many public-spirited 
individuals and organizations of its responsibility of leadership in all 
things relating to the naturalization of aliens. Appeals have been pre- 
sented for definite action along many lines, one of which is that the Bureau 
of Naturalization shall lead in the preparation and in securing the adop- 
tion of such a standard course of instruction as its experience shows the 
naturalization of aliens warrants. 

All educational roads lead to the assumption of citizenship responsi- 
bilities, and the success with which they are traveled determines their 
justification. This course is but a step on the road toward the desired 
standardization, and is the joint expression of those engaged immediately 
in the administration of citizenship matters — the courts, the public 
schools, and the Bureau of Naturalization. Its purpose is to make 
possible the ready teaching of the highest of all professions — the profession 
of self-government — and to create the highest sense of the duties and 
responsibilities of that profession. Through this course it is hoped to 
effect a closer and more complete unity of action in that pleasant and 
most profitable duty of imparting to the eager mind of the alien-born 
friend those principles upon which our Government is established. It 
is urged that only by the adoption and improvement of the methods 
prevailing in the public schools presented herein can further improve- 
ment be accomplished. 

By conscientious application to their high profession the teachers in 
America's public schools may see in the schoolrooms an immediate 
realization of their aims and ideals in the strengthened regard for our 

5 



6 student's textbook. 

institutions of government, in the manifestations of devotion to America 
constantly and increasingly coming from the student body, and know 
that they are insuring the perpetuation of those principles of freedom 
upon which our forefathers founded our Republic. 

To those who have had years of experience and from whom much of this 
matter has come it may appear that but little has been left to the imagina- 
tion of the teacher. Teaching citizenship is a field into which the public 
schools are just entering. For this reason a great deal of detail of pro- 
cedure has been shown in the manual for the benefit of those who never 
heretofore have pursued any course of instruction of the adult foreigner. 

As stated in the Teacher's Manual, the Textbook is not intended to 
displace other textbooks having material suited to the Americanization 
of candidates for citizenship. Such method of instruction as the Text- 
book contains is intended to present class work for the use of the public 
schools in instructing adult foreigners. 

Much that is needed to make a course that will satisfy the needs of 
the candidates for citizenship in meeting their new responsibilities is 
included. The bureau hesitated in broadening the field presented or in 
undertaking to complete portions manifestly incomplete. In these days 
of rapid advance of education into new fields and of pedagogy, with the 
resultant increased burden upon public-school officials and teachers, 
the bureau congratulates the school body of the United States and itself 
upon the remarkable completeness of the material which it has received 
for this work. 

It realizes at the same time that there is ample room for constructive 
comment upon the text, the method, and the style of its presentation. 
It trusts that such comment may take the form of constructive criticism, 
and it welcomes all emendation tending to place this stupendous nation- 
wide concert of action upon the most solid foundation. 




42783°— 21. (Face p. 7.) 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 









LESSON I. 






the 




his 


I have 




This is my 


a 




her 


You have 


This is your 


an 




man 


He has 




That is his 


my 




woman 


She has 




That is her 


your 






PARTS OF THE BODY. 




head 




eyebrow 


tongue 


wrist 


heel 


hand 




eyelid 


tooth 


throat 


toe 


arm 




mouth 


forehead 


body 


skin 


foot 




nose 


neck 


back 


bone 


leg 




ear 


finger 


waist 


heart 


hair 




cheek 


finger nail 


chest 


blood 


face 




chin 


shoulder 


stomach 


lung 


eye 




lips 


elbow 


knee 


muscle 




This is my hand. 




That is 


his hand. 




This is your hand. 




That is 


her hand. 








LESSON II 


> 










WRITING. 






neaa 






tvitet 






VOCK 






/oot 






4&71 






moatA 






aim 
eue 






mloat 
tea 







note 

toe 

cniri 

eaA 
e/vow 



men ate eieatea eaaa/. * J — Declaration of Independence. 
rr ffle aie nevei too ota to /eat^i/ J — Benjamin Franklin. 
r '*Jne aooid of tvteavm, aie rieveb mat. J J — Benjamin Franklin. 
rr <yro aatnd i&ttnoat ' Aacrte. * J — Benjamin Franklin. 



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42783'— 21. (Fnce | 



student's textbook. 







LESSON III. 




Where 


What 


Take 




Put 






SCHOOLROOM OBJECTS. 




American flag 


book 


pencil 


floor 


wall 


ceiling 


window 


hallway- 


stairs 


picture 


picture frame 


box 


basket 


clock 


bell 


ruler 


blackboard 


eraser 


rubber 


pen 


penholder 


desk 


chair 










CLOTHES OR CLOTHING. 




hat 


collar 


coat 


necktie 


overcoat 


shoes 


dress 


shirt 


apron 


pants 


stockings 


gloves 


socks 


shawl 


cuff 


belt 


ribbon 


suspenders 


vest 





They are on my desk. 

I take your gloves from my desk and put them on your desk. 

The basket is on the chair. 

I took the basket from the chair and put it on the floor. 

I took your gloves from my desk and put them on your desk. 

I took the basket from the chair and put it on the floor. 



WRITING. 



a, a&moclczcu. J - J - — Thomas Jefferson. 



inAeb&nt U'ant of aw vn, 



;oy. 



LESSON IV. 



I have two arms. I have two feet. I have two hands. I have two legs. I have 
one head. I have two ears. I have two eyes. I have eight fingers. I have two 
thumbs. 

You have two hands. You have one head. You have a hat. You have two arms. 
You have two feet. You have two legs. You have two ears. You have two eyes. 
You have two thumbs. You have eight fingers. 

He has two hands. He has two thumbs. He has eight fingers. He has a hat. 
He has two arms. He has two eyes. He has two feet. He has two legs. He has 
two ears. 

She has two hands. She has two thumbs. She has eight fingers. She has one 
head. She has two arms. She has two eyes. She has two feet. She has two ears. 
She has one nose. 

I have a hat in my hand. She has a hat on her head. 



r * ' Wwyw/ watte maned ^vee^Kt/ want. 
r < Vw£ tnwiad c&be eadw Jo cnaitdJltUj 
*Jy>/o J/Un>ad arte afonfccttw Jo d/oJn. 



— Benjamin Franklin. 



student's textbook. 9 

LESSON V. 

This These That Those 

This is my hand. This is my arm. This is my head. This is my eye. This is 
my forehead. This is my nose. This is my mouth. This is my chin. This is my 
ear. This is my foot. 

That is your hand. That is your arm. That is your head. That is your eye. 
That is your forehead. That is your nose. That is your mouth. That is your chin. 
That is your ear. That is your foot. 

That is his hand. That is his arm. That is his head. That is his eye. That is 
his forehead. That is his nose. That is his mouth. That is his chin. That is his 
ear. That is his foot. 

That is her hand. That is her arm. That is her head. That is her eye. That is 
her forehead. That is her nose. That is her mouth. That is her chin. That is her 
ear. That is her foot. 

This is my hat. This is her hat. This is his hat. This is your hat. That is my 
hat. That is her hat. That is his hat. That is your hat. These are my arms. 
These are my fingers. These are my cheeks. These are my hands. Those are your 
arms. Those are your fingers. Those are your cheeks. Those are your hands. 
Those are her arms. Those are her fingers. Those are her cheeks. Those are her 
hands. Those are his arms. Those are his fingers. Those are his cheeks. Those 
are his hands. These are my shoes. Those are your shoes. Those are her shoes. 
Those are his shoes. 

This is your book. This is your desk. This is your pencil. This is your hat. 
This is your chair. That is your coat. 

This is a book. This is a desk. This is a pencil. This is a hat. This is a chair. 
This is a coat. This is a blackboard. This is a window. 

This is her book. This is her desk. This is her pencil. This is her hat. This is 
her chair. This is her coat. 

This is his book. This is his desk. This is his pencil. This is his hat. This is 
his chair. This is his coat. 

e/c ao7ie id veffiei, man ivetv daca/ j — Benjamin Franklin. 



LESSON VI. 

I have two eyes. You have two eyes. I see with my eyes. I hear with my ears. 
I smell with my nose. I speak with my mouth. I eat with my mouth. I taste 
with my tougue. No; I do not smell with my eyes; I look with my eyes. No; I 
do not hear with my hands; I hear with my ears. I can smell with my nose. I 
can hear the clock tick with my ears. Yes; I see with my eyes. 

In the schoolroom I see the teacher, the students, the blackboard, the desks, the 
clock, the window, the floor, the ceiling, and the walls. 

adte tnaned ivadte. 

eie tieveb wad a aooa £n^ vnaae a? vaa meta// J 

— Benjamin Franklin. 



io student's textbook. 

LESSON VII. 

CONVERSATION. 

How many feet have you? I have two feet. 

How many books have you? I have four books. 

How many pencils has the teacher? She has two pencils. 

How many legs has your desk? My desk has four legs. 

I am standing. I am walking. I am sitting. I am reading. He is standing. He 
is walking. He is sitting. He is reading. She is standing. She is walking. She 
is sitting. She is reading. We are standing. We are walking. We are sitting. We 
are reading. You are standing. You are walking. You are sitting. You are read- 
ing. They are standing. They are walking. They are sitting. They are reading. 

What am I doing? You are standing. 

What am I doing now? You are walking. 

What are Moische and Antonio doing? They are standing. 

What are Moische and Antonio doing now? They are walking. 

Put your hand on your head. What did you do? I put my hand on my head. 

Put your hand in your pocket. What did you do? I put may hand in my pocket. 

Where are my books? Your books are on the floor. 

Pick up your books and place them on the desk. I picked up the books and placed 
them on the desk. I sat down. I am seated. 

What use do you make of the clock? I tell the time of day by the clock. 

Tell the parts of the clock. The clock has two hands, a face, and a case. One of 
the hands is small and one is large. 

Why does it have a small and a large hand ? The small one is to tell the hours and 
the large one is to tell the minutes. 

Some clocks have another and smaller hand. What is the use of the smallest hand? 
It tells the number of seconds in each minute. 

How many seconds are in a minute? There are 60 seconds in each minute. 

How many minutes are in each hour? There are 60 minutes in each hour. 

How many hours are in each day? There are 24 hours in each day. 



*e*y?i<2> can,o / la / ?zt te ?io£ 60 macn a dna?ne ad veehza 
ftmwc/w'Ma to /eabvz. — Benjamin Franklin. 

LESSON VIII. 

I am sitting down. I rise and stand up. I walk across the floor. I reach the door. 
I open the door. I close the door. I return to my seat. I sit down. 

She is sitting down at her desk. She rises and stands up. She walks across the 
floor. She reaches the door. She opens the door. She closes the door. She returns 
to her seat. She sits down. 

This is my book. It is a schoolbook. I look at my book with my eyes. I give 
my book to Giovanni. Giovanni takes my book. He opens it with his hands. He 
looks at it with his eyes. He reads the book. He finishes reading the book. He 
passes the book to Selma. She takes my book. She opens it with her hands. She 
looks at it with her eyes. She reads the book. She finishes reading the book. 

rr <$oe Jnat dad a foaae dad an omce <^Alofrt ana d&nob. — 
Benjamin Franklin. 



student's textbook. II 

LESSON IX. 
STORY OF SCHOOLROOM. 

I like to come to the school. I like the teacher. I like the lessons that are taught. 
I like to write in my copy book. I like to write on the blackboard. I like to read in 
the schoolbooks. I like to read about America. If I am to learn all the teacher 
desires me to learn, I must come to the schoolroom every night the school is open. 
I must study my lessons. I must listen to what the teacher tells me. Those who 
come to the school to learn are called students or pupils. They should not be late. 
The students always should come to the school on time. Their clothing should be 
neat. When they are in school they should be respectful to their teacher and polite 
and courteous to one another. It is wrong to make noises in the schoolroom. It is 
harder to learn the lessons when there are noises in the room. The students should 
use the desks carefully and act so that the schoolroom and building will not be injured. 
If a student drops paper on the floor, he should pick it up at once. When I come to 
the schoolroom I should say " Good evening ' ' to the teacher. When I leave the school- 
room I should say "Good night" to the teacher. Students should speak to each 
other in the same way when coming into the schoolroom before the lesson commences. 
When students meet in the schoolroom they should say "How do you do?" "How 
are you? " " How are you this evening ? " or " Good evening. ' ' When they leave, it 
is courteous for them to say "Good night" to each other. 

I shall try to act as I have learned from this lesson. I come to the evening school 
to learn to speak American English . It means a better opportunity and a better home 
for me in America. It means a better job for me. It means a better chance for my 
children. It means a better America. I shall do my part in making a better America. 
I love America because of what it does for me . 

I shall talk in English in my home. I shall speak English in my work. I shall 
talk English with my wife and children. 

' '' \y&eaGfori,a maned a /it// mari; mecufafawi a /Uawund 

-mean; c/teccwlde a c/eai mam/'' — Benjamin Franklin. 



LESSON X. 

The teacher is expected to give the class full instruction in this lesson. 

THE NEWSPAPER. 

Each day the newspaper gives us a record of events as they occur 
throughout the world and makes it possible for us to know what is being 
done and said and thought. It has been called "the poor man's univer- 
sity," as through its use the poor man may develop, at small expense, 
the habit of thinking — of reasoning — -which is the foundation of all 
mental growth. 

Three hundred years ago the newspaper was a single sheet printed on 
a simple hand press and issuing but a small number of copies. In its 
growth to the great modern daily, printed on giant presses which print 
and fold as many as 96,000 16-page papers in an hour, it has been an 
important factor in the upbuilding of our country. The wise men who 



12 



STUDENT S TEXTBOOK. 



framed our Constitution knew how necessary the freedom and inde- 
pendence of the newspapers would be to a democracy, and carefully 
provided for the "liberty of the press." 

To-day in the United States there are more than 23,000 newspapers, a 
fact which shows how necessary this kind of publication has become to 
the American family. 







LESwSON XI 


[. 






MEMBERS OF THE FAMILY. 




mother 


daughter 


grandparents 


wife 


uncle 


father 


children 


grandson 


mother-in-law 


aunt 


parents 


child 


granddaughter 


father-in-law 


nephew 


brother 


grandmother 


grandchildren 


brother-in-law 


niece 


sister 


grandfather 


husband 


sister-in-law 


cousin 


son 














PARTS OF THE HOUSE. 




attic 


dining room 


stairs 


key 


window 


garret 


sitting room 


wall 


lock 


windowpane 


roof 


cellar 


floor 


door 


windowframe 


parlor 


kitchen 


ceiling 

FURNITURE. 






table 


napkin 


chair 


soap 


sheet 


desk 


sugar bowl 


rocking chair 


shelf 


towel 


bureau 


sugar spoon 


pictures 


matches 


tablecloth 


settee 


spoon 


pillow 


lamp 


cupboard 


clock 


stove 


comb 


chair 


butter dish 


rug 


coal 


closet 


chiffonier 


cup 


piano 


wood 


spoon holder 


bed 


saucer 


blanket 


couch 


fork 


couch 


glass 


mirror 


dressing table 


knife 


curtains 


coffee pot 


brush 


sofa 


saltcellar 


mattress 


kettle 


"&a 


feme te nevel jfcwna aacwn. ** — Benjamin 


Franklin. 






VEGETABLES. 






potato 


lettuce 


parsley 


corn 


pea 


cucumber 


bean 


squash 


spinach 


carrot 


beet 


cabbage 


turnip 

FRUITS. 


tomato 


celery 


peach 


plum 


pear 


lemon 


currant 


strawberry 


grape 


fig 


orange 


cherry 


date 


apple 


cantaloupe 

NUTS. 


watermelon 


banana 


almond 


hickory nut 


butternut 


pecan 


Brazil nut 


hazelnut 


walnut 


peanut 


chestnut 





student's textbook. 13 

LESSON XII. 

DAYS OF THE WEEK. 

There are seven days in a week. The first day is Sunday. The other 
days are Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, and Saturday. 
Saturday is the last day of the week. The first day is a day of rest. 
People of the Jewish faith and of several Christian sects observe Saturday 
instead of Sunday as a day of rest. The other six days are days in which 
we are to work. The schools are open in the daytime from Monday to 
Friday for about nine months in the year. They are also open in the 
nighttime for four or five months in nearly 1,000 cities for those who 
work in the daytime. In some cities the schools are open through the 
whole year to teach citizenship classes. I wish this school would stay 
open all the year for teaching citizenship duties. When I become a 
citizen, I will vote to have the public schools kept open the entire year. 

MONTHS OF THE YEAR. 

There are 1 2 months in the year. The months are January, February, 
March, April, May, June, July, August, September, October, November, 
and December. The year is divided into four seasons of three months 
each. These seasons are spring, summer, autumn or fall, and winter 
The spring months are March, April, and May. The summer months are 
June, July, and August. The autumn or fall months are September, 
October, and November. The winter months are December, January, 
and February. The seasons commence on the 21st and end on the 20th 
day of the month. January, March, May, July, August, October, and 
December have 31 days each. April, June, September, and November 
have 30 days each. February has 28 days, except every fourth year, 
called leap year, when it has one day more. The abbreviated or short 
forms for writing the months are as follows: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr. (May, 
June, and July are not abbreviated), Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. 

holidays. 

The first day of January is New Year's Day, and it is observed as a 
holiday in all of the States and in Washington City, the capital of the 
Nation. February 1 2 is the birthday of Abraham Lincoln, and in a great 
many States it is a legal holiday. February 22 is Washington's Birthday, 
and it is universally observed as a holiday throughout the United States. 
March 4 is the day on which, every fourth year, the President of the 
United States is inaugurated. It is a holiday in Washington City in that 
year. May 30 is called Memorial or Decoration Day, when exercises in 
memory of the soldier dead are held, and is a holiday in most of the States. 
The Fourth of July or Independence Day is observed as a holiday in 
every part of the United States. The first Monday in September has 
been named by Congress Labor Day. Congress has made it a legal 



14 student's textbook. 

holiday in the District of Columbia, and it is observed as a holiday in all 
the States. The last Thursday of November is called Thanksgiving Day, 
and each year the President of the United States issues a proclamation 
to the people to observe this day as a day of thanksgiving to God for the 
blessings received during the year. December 25 is called Christmas 
Day and is observed as a holiday not only throughout the United States 
but in almost every civilized country in the world. 

protection from fires. 

Everyone should be careful in the use of fire. Safety matches should 
be used if obtainable. If other matches are used they should be kept in 
metal boxes. A burning match never should be thrown on the floor. 
The light should be blown out. The spark remaining after the flame has 
gone out should be extinguished with care. Almost every fire is due to 
a thoughtless and careless action. There is great danger of fire in cities 
and especially in the parts of the cities in which working people live. In 
the tenement houses and factories the danger probably is greatest. This 
is because of the great number of people who live in tenement buildings 
and work in factories. 

Children should not be allowed to have matches. Sometimes it is 
necessary for parents to leave the little children alone in the home. 
Before the parents go out all matches should be placed where the children 
can not find them. Children should be repeatedly warned of the danger 
of fire. 

Loose papers, rags, and all rubbish should be taken from the house and 
placed in metal cans specially made for that purpose. All waste paper 
should be folded carefully and tied in neat bundles. Paper cared for in 
this way may be sold to advantage instead of being thrown away as waste. 

All persons employed in shops or factories or living in houses where 
many families live should know the location of the fire escapes. Everyone 
should learn where the fire-alarm boxes are placed. As soon as a fire is 
discovered, some one should run quickly to the nearest fire-alarm box 
and ring the alarm. No one should ring the fire alarm or touch the fire- 
alarm box unless there is a fire. It is wrong to cry "Fire," "Fire." 
The cry of fire causes many people to become frightened and in crowded 
buildings almost always results in loss of life or injury to many people. 

In the city government there is a fire department. The duty of the 
fire department is to provide means for the protection of the lives and 
property of the people from fire. The city government employs men to 
work as firemen. These firemen are always ready to answer the call to 
put out a fire in any part of the city. The men are fire fighters and are 
trained in all methods for putting out fires. Each city has an organi- 
zation of fire-fighting men. The head of the fire department is called the 
chief. The chief has subchiefs, captains, lieutenants, drivers, and other 
firemen. The city government pays the members of the fire department 
from the money collected from the taxpayers. 



STUDENT S TEXTBOOK. 



15 





LESSON XIII. 






VOCATIONS 


, TOOLS, ETC. 




actor 


housekeeper 


telephone operator 


pencil 


agent 


instructor 


watchmaker 


pickax 


automobile machinistjeweler 


watchman 


plane 


banker 


laborer 


anvil 


pliers 


barber 


laundress 


auger 


plow 


blacksmith 


lawyer 


awl 


plumb line 


boiler maker 


letter carrier 


ax 


punch 


bookbinder 


liveryman 


bellows 


rake 


bookkeeper 


machinist 


bit 


razor 


bricklayer 


mason 


brush 


reamer 


butcher 


merchant 


cash register 


riveter 


carpenter 


miner 


chisel 


saw 


chauffeur 


motorman 


churn 


scales 


clerk 


musician 


compass 


scraper 


conductor 


nurse 


cutter 


screw driver 


cook 


optician 


drill 


scythe 


dentist 


overseer 


eraser 


sewing machine 


detective 


painter 


file 


shears 


doctor 


plumber 


flatiron 


shovel 


driver 


policeman 


hammer 


sledge 


druggist 


preacher 


harrow 


spade 


electrician 


printer 


hatchet 


square 


engineer 


salesman 


hoe 


tongs 


engraver 


school-teacher 


last 


trowel 


farmer 


shoemaker 


lathe 


typewriter 


fireman 


stenographer 


level 


wire cutter 


fisherman 


tailor 


needle 


wrench 


grocer 


telegrapher 


pen 






LESSON XIV. 





FIRST STEPS IN NATURALIZATION. 

TAKING OUT MY FIRST PAPER. 

I am over 18 years old. For some time I have wanted to become an 
American citizen. I wanted to take out my first citizen's paper. I did 
not know how to do this. I asked my friends and found some who 
would tell me if I would pay them. Others who did not know sent me 
to their friends, who offered to help me; but they also wanted to be 
paid. I had heard that others were helped without having to pay. 
Finally, I found a friend who told me the Bureau of Naturalization in 
Washington City would show me what to do to become an American 
without asking me to pay for the information. I wrote a letter to the 
Bureau of Naturalization and received a letter with a paper to fill out. 
The Commissioner of Naturalization said the chief naturalization exam- 
iner in this city would help me fill out the paper without pay. I called 
on the chief naturalization examiner, and he helped me fill out the paper 
and would take no pay for his work. This paper was the form that 
shows all the information needed for the clerk of the court to make out 
the first paper. When it was filled out I took it to the clerk of the court 
and made my declaration of intention to become an American citizen. 



1 6 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

The United States Government then sent me a letter telling me about 
the night schools and how they would help me in court to answer the 
questions necessary to get my citizen's papers, and urged me to go to 
the public school nearest my home. I went to the school, and now I am 
learning to read, write, and speak English. The teachers have received 
from the Bureau of Naturalization all of the forms that are needed to 
take out first papers and the second paper or certificate of naturalization. 
The teacher knows all about citizen's papers and is always ready to help 
anyone to get his citizenship papers, and will not take pay for this work. 
This is because the United States Government gave the papers to the 
teacher, who is glad to give the help without pay in any place where 
there are no United States naturalization examiners. If I had known the 
public-school teacher had all the preliminary papers and knew all about 
how to take out citizen's papers, I would have gone to the school-teacher 
and not to others, who would not help me unless I would pay them. 

Form 2213. FACTS FOR DECLARATION OF INTENTION. 



UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. 
NATURALIZATION SERVICE. 



Note. — A copy of this form should be furnished by the clerk of the court to each applicant for a declar- 
ation of intention, so that he can at his leisure fill in the answers to the questions. After being filled out 
the form is to be returned to the clerk, to be used by him in properly filling out the declaration. If the 
applicant landed on or after June 29, 1906, his declaration should not be filed until the name of the vessel 
is definitely given (or the name of the railroad and border port in the United States through which the 
alien entered), as well as the date of arrival. 

To the Applicant. — The fee of $1 must be paid to the clerk of the court before he commences to fill 
out the declaration of intention. No fee is chargeable for this blank. 

My name is Age years. 

(Alien should state here his true, original, and correct name in full) (Give age at last birthday) 

Also known as 

(If alien has used any other name in this country, that name should be shown on line immediately above) 

Occupation 

Color Complexion 

Height feet inches. Weight pounds. 

Color of hair Color of eyes 

Other visible distinctive marks 

(If no visible distinctive marks, so state) 

Where born , 

(City or town) (Country) 

Date of birth , , 

(Month) (Day) (Year) 
Present residence , , 

(Number and street) (City or town) (State, Territory, or District) 
Emigrated from , 

(Place where alien got on ship or train to come to the United States) (Country) 
Name of vessel 

(If the alien arrived otherwise than by vessel, the character of conveyance or name of transportation 
company should be given) 

Last place of foreign residence , 

(City or town) (Country) 

*I am married ; the name of my wife is ; she was 

*born at ; and now resides at 

I am now a subject of and intend to renounce allegiance to 

(Write name and title of sovereign and country of which now a subject; or if citizen of a Republic, write 
name of Republic only) 

Port of arrival , 

(City or town) (State or Territory) 

Date of arrival in United States , 1 , 

(Month) (Day) (Year) 

*Note to clerk OP court. — The two lines indicated by the (*) contain information which is provided 
for by blanks on the latest declaration of intention form; until such time as you may be supplied with 
forms containing these blank spaces the information called for herein should be inserted immediately above 
the twelfth line, which begins " It is my bona fide intention," etc., as requested in circular letter of Jan- 
uary 5, 1916. 



student's textbook. 17 

LESSON XV. 

COMPOSITION AND LETTER WRITING. 

84 Fifth Avenue, 
New York, N. Y., 

June 10, iqi6. 

Messrs. Sheppard, Miller & Co., 

gff Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
Gentlemen: Inclosed please find my check for $25, drawn to your order, in settle- 
ment in full of my account. 
Very truly, yours, 

Anton Martin. 

Mr. Anton Martin, 

84 Fifth Avenue, New York, N. Y. 
Dear Sir: The receipt is acknowledged of your letter of the 10th instant, together 
with your check in the sum of $25 in full settlement of your account, for which please 
accept our thanks. 

Very respectfully, yours, 

Sheppard, Miller & Co., 
Per B. 0. Miller. 



LESSON XVI. 
SIMPLE NUMBER WORK. 



o=naught. 
1 =one. 

2=tWO. 

3=three. 

4=four. 

5=five. 

6=six. 

7=seven. 

8=eight. 

9=nine. 
io=ten. 
n=eleven. 
i2=twelve. 
i3=thirteen.- 



1st = first. 
2d =second. 
3d =third. 
4th=fourth. 
5th=fifth. 
6th=sixth. 
7th=seventh. 
8th=eighth. 

42783°— 21- 



CARDINAL NUMERALS. 

i4=fourteen. 

1 5 == fifteen. 

i6=sixteen. 

i7=seventeen. 

i8=eighteen. 

i9=nineteen. 

2o=twenty. 

2 1 =twenty-one . 

22 =twenty-two. 
23= twenty-three . 
24=twenty-four. 
25= twenty-five . 
26=twenty-six. 
27= twenty-seven . 

ORDINAL NUMERALS. 

9th==ninth. 
ioth=tenth. 
1 ith= eleventh. 
1 2th = twelfth. 
i3th=thirteenth. 
1 4th =f ourteenth . 
i5th=fifteenth. 
i6th=sixteenth. 



28= twenty-eight . 
2 9 =twenty-nine . 
3o=thirty. 
40=forty. 
5o=fifty. 
6o=sixty. 
7o=seventy. 
80= eighty. 
9o=ninety. 
1 00= one hundred. 
i,ooo=one thousand. 
i,ooo,ooo=one million. 



1 7th =seventeenth . 
1 8th = eighteenth . 
1 9th =nineteenth . 
2 oth = twentieth . 
2 1st =twenty-first. 
5oth=fiftieth. 
1 ooth =hundredth . 
1 ,000th =thousandth . 



i8 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 



ROMAN NUMERALS. 



1= 


si. 




VII= 


= 7- 




XIII= 


=I 3- 


XIX= 


= 19. 


C=ioo. 


11= 


= 2. 




VIII= 


=8. 




XIV= 


= 14. 


xx= 


=20. 


D=5oo. 


111= 


=3- 




IX= 


=9- 




XV= 


=15- 


xxx= 


=3°- 


CM= 9 oo. 


IV= 


=4- 




x= 


= 10 




XVI= 


= 16. 


XL= 


=40. 


M=i,ooo. 


v= 


=5- 




XI= 


=11 




XVII= 


= 17. 


L= 


= 50- 




VI= 


=6. 




XII= 


=12 




XVIII= 


=18. 


LX= 


=60. 
















NUMBERS. 












i 


14 




27 


40 


53 


66 


79 


92 






2 


15 




28 


41 


54 


67 


80 


93 






3 


16 




29 


42 


55 


68 


81 


94 






4 


17 




30 


43 


56 


69 


82 


95 






5 


18 




31 


44 


57 


70 


83 


96 






6 


19 




32 


45 


58 


7i 


84 


97 






7 


20 




33 


46 


59 


72 


85 


98 






8 


21 




34 


47 


60 


73 


86 


99 






9 


22 




35 


48 


61 


74 


87 


100 






IO 


23 




36 


49 


62 


75 


88 








n 


24 




37 


50 


63 


76 


89 








12 


25 




38 


51 


64 


77 


90 




M- 




13 


26 




39 


52 


65 


78 


9i 




LUU. 

2 




2 




2 




3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


I 




4 




S 




3 


5 


2 


3 


7 



Subtract: 



5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


4 


6 


9 


7 


6 


8 


7 


5 


8 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


10 


11 


12 


9 


7 


6 


9 


6 


8 


3 


8 


7 



2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


1 





3 


2 


1 


2 


3 


1 


3 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


1 


2 


4 


3 


2 


5 


3 





4 



Multiply: 
















2 by 2 


3 by 4 


4 by 6 


9 by 9 


10 by 


10 


10 by 7 


11 by 9 


3 by 3 


4 by 5 


7 by 8 


9 by 8 


12 by 


8 


10 by 8 


12 by 6 


4 by 4 


5 by 6 


8 by 8 


8 by 6 


11 by 


4 


12 by 9 


10 by 3 


5 by 5 


6 by 7 


9 by 6 


8 by 4 


10 by 


9 


11 by 7 


12 by 9 


Divide: 
















4 by 


2 


12 by 3 


10 by 5 


24 by 6 




16 by 8 


36 by 9 


6 by 


2 


15 by 3 


15 by 5 


30 by 6 




24 by 8 


45 by 9 


8 by 


2 


8 by 4 


20 by 5 


14 by 7 




32 by 8 




10 by 


2 


12 by 4 


25 by 5 


21 by 7 




40 by 8 




6 by 


3 


16 by 4 


12 by 6 


28 by 7 




18 by 9 




9 by 


3 


20 by 4 


18 by 6 


35 by 7 




27 by 9 





student's textbook. 19 

LESSON XVII. 

UNITED STATES MONEY. 

One cent. 

Five cents = a nickel. 
Ten cents = a dime; two nickels = a dime. 

Twenty-five cents=a quarter; two dimes and a nickel=a quarter. 
Two quarters = a half dollar. 
Fifty cents=a half dollar. 

One hundred cents=one dollar; four quarters=one dollar; two half dollars=one 
dollar. 



The cent has the smallest value among United States coins. It is made of copper. 

The next coin is the five-cent piece. It is made of nickel. Five cents make a 
nickel. 

The next coin is the dime. It is made of silver. Ten cents make a dime. Two 
nickels make a dime. 

The next coin is the quarter. Twenty-five cents make a quarter. Five nickels 
make a quarter. 

Two quarters make a half dollar. 

Two fifty-cent pieces make a dollar. One hundred cents make a dollar. Dollars 
are made of silver, gold, or paper. When made of paper they are called dollar bills. 

In making change I get four quarters for a dollar bill; I get five one-dollar bills for a 
five-dollar bill ; I get five dimes for a half dollar. 

If I pay fifty cents for a necktie, I get fifty cents change from a dollar bill. If the 
change is given to me in quarters, I get two quarters. 

If I buy a suit of clothes for twenty-five dollars and give the merchant three ten- 
dollar bills, I get five dollars change. If the change is given to me in one-dollar bills, 
I get five one-dollar bills. 

Symbols.— One cent — 1<5 or $0.01. One dollar — $1. Twenty-five cents — 25$ or 
$0.25. Five dollars — $5. Five dollars and twenty-five cents — $5.25. 

Write, add, and subtract the following: 
$0. 05 $1. 25 $5. 12 

.02 .79 2. S3 



$4.13 


$8.49 


$1.92 


3-67 


5-63 


1.83 



LESSON XVIII. 
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS. 

(The teacher will supply problems involving the following tables.) 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

Avoirdupois weight. 
16 ounces (oz.)=i pound (lb.) 

100 pounds = 1 hundredweight (cwt) 
20 hundredweight! 

2,000 poundsp 1 ton ^ 
2, 240 pounds=i long ton. 

Liquid measure. 
4 gills (gi.)=i pint (pt.) 
2 pints = 1 quart (qt.) 
4 quarts = 1 gallon (gal.) 
31% gallons = 1 barrel (bbl.) 
2 barrels) 
6 2 gallons^ 1 hogshead (hhd.) 



20 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 



Dry measure. 
2 pints (pt.)=i quart (qt.) 
8 quarts=i peck (pk.) 
4 pecks=i bushel (bu.) 
2Kbushels=i barrel (bbl.) 

Long measure. 
12 inches (in.)=i foot (ft.) 
3 feet=i yard (yd.) 
SX yards) 
i6K feetf =I rod ( r <*.) 

320 rods] 
1,760 yards i=i mile (mi.) 
5,280 feet J 

Square measure. 
144 square inches (sq. in.)=i square foot (sq. ft.) 
9 square feet=i square yard (sq. yd.) 
30X square yards=i square rod (sq. rd.) 
160 square rods=i acre (A.) 

640 acres = 1 square mile (sq. mi.) 

NAMES AND ABBREVIATIONS OF THE. STATES, TERRI- 
TORIES, AND AMERICAN POSSESSIONS. 



Alabama Ala. 

Arizona Ariz. 

Arkansas Ark. 

California Cal. 

Colorado Colo. 

Connecticut Conn. 

Delaware Del. 

District of Columbia D. C. 

Florida Fla. 

Georgia Ga. 

Idaho Idaho. 

Illinois 111. 

Indiana Ind. 

Iowa Iowa. 

Kansas Kans. 

Kentucky Ky. 

Louisiana La. 

Maine Me. 

Maryland Md. 

Massachusetts Mass. 

Michigan Mich. 

Minnesota Minn. 

Mississippi Miss. 

Missouri Mo. 

Montana Mont. 

Nebraska Nebr. 

Nevada ' Nev. 

New Hampshire N. H. 

Note. — Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, 
be abbreviated. 



New Jersey N.J. 

New Mexico N. Mex. 

New York N. Y. 

North Carolina N. C. 

North Dakota N. Dak. 

Ohio Ohio. 

Oklahoma Okla. 

Oregon Oreg. 

Pennsylvania Pa. 

Rhode Island R. I. 

South Carolina S. C. 

South Dakota S. Dak. 

Tennessee Tenn. 

Texas Tex. 

Utah Utah. 

Vermont Vt. 

Virginia Va. 

Washington Wash. 

West Virginia W. Va. 

Wisconsin Wis. 

Wyoming Wyo. 

Territories and insular possessions. 

Alaska Alaska. 

Hawaii Hawaii. 

Philippine Islands P. I. 

Porto Rico P. R. 

Virgin Islands Virgin Islands. 

Ohio. Utah, and Virgin Islands should not 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 21 

LESSON XIX. 
THE FLAG. 

The flag of a nation is the emblem of that nation. The American flag 
is raised every day over the White House, every executive department 
building, each of the two Houses of Congress, and all Government 
buildings in Washington City, the Nation's capital. It also floats from 
all State and Federal buildings throughout the United States, and on the 
ships of the Navy and Army and all American embassies, legations, and 
consulates all over the world. 

Gen. George Washington raised the first American flag on January 2, 
1776, at Cambridge, Mass., when he took command of the American 
Army to fight the British. This flag had seven red and six white stripes, 
and the British crosses in the blue field where the stars now are. In the 
next year, by order of the Continental Congress, the British emblem was 
replaced by the white stars in the blue field. In 1794 the number of 
stars and stripes was changed to 15 each, after Vermont and Kentucky 
became States. In 181 8 Congress restored the original 13 stripes to 
represent the 13 original States and decided that there should be one new 
star added on July 4 of any year for each new State admitted during the 
preceding year. There are now 48 stars in the flag, representing the 48 
States of the Union. Our flag is called the Stars and Stripes; the stars 
represent our present growth, while the stripes refer to America's history. 
The blue in the flag represents loyalty, which is the foundation upon 
which our country is built. The States rest upon this foundation of 
loyalty as truly as the white stars rest on the blue foundation. 

Betsy Ross, the daughter of an American patriot, made the first flag 
for our country and designed the star. Her home, on Arch Street in 
Philadelphia, where she made the flag, still stands and is carefully pre- 
served as the birthplace of the American flag. 

We have a national song to the flag, written by Francis Scott Key 
during our second war of independence. It is called the "Star-Spangled 
Banner." This is the first stanza: 

O, say! Can you see, by the dawn's early light, 
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming, 
Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the perilous night, 
O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming? 

And the rockets' red glare, 

The bombs bursting in air, 
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there. 
O, say! Does the star-spangled banner yet wave 
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave? 



22 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

AMERICA. 

[By Samuel Francis Smith.] 

My country, 'tis of thee, 
Sweet land of liberty, 

Of thee I sing, 
Land where my fathers died, 
Land of the Pilgrims' pride, 
From ev'ry mountain side, 

Let freedom ring. 

My native country, thee, 
Land of the noble free, 

Thy name I love ; 
I love thy rocks and rills, 
Thy woods and templed hills, 
My heart with rapture thrills, 

Like that above. 

Let music swell the breeze, 
And ring from all the trees, 

Sweet freedom's song; 
Let mortal tongues awake, 
Let all that breathe partake, 
Let rocks their silence break, 

The sound prolong. 

Our fathers' God, to Thee, 
Author of liberty, 

To Thee we sing; 
Long may our land be bright, 
With freedom 's holy light, 
Protect us by Thy might, 

Great God, our King! 

LESSON XX. 

STORY OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 

America is a free nation governed by its citizens. It is a sovereign 
State called the United States of America, composed of 48 States whose 
citizens owe their entire allegiance to the sovereign State as well as to the 
State in which they reside. The other residents of these States who are 
not citizens owe a partial allegiance to the State in which they reside 
and to the United States. Those owing a partial allegiance are of foreign 
birth. Citizenship may be obtained by all residents of foreign birth who 
can comply with the naturalization laws. I can become a citizen of the 
United States. When I came to America I knew that I would have a 
better opportunity to care for myself. Since coming to America I have 
learned to love it. I want to learn more about the people and the 
Government. When I have lived in America for five years I shall be able 
to become a citizen if I declared my intention soon enough after I got 
here. Many people call the declaration the "citizen's first paper." I 



student's textbook. 23 

can not become a citizen until my first paper is two years old and I have 
lived continuously within the United States for five years. 

The United States is governed by its citizens. When I become a citi- 
zen I shall help to govern the United States. In the country where I was 
born I was a subject of the country. In this country I may become a 
sovereign of the country. Each citizen of the United States is a sovereign 
instead of being a subject. The citizens govern the country. They 
choose from among themselves those who shall administer the affairs of 
government. A person who is chosen for this purpose is elected to some 
office. This is called an election. The citizens vote for several who 
desire an office. The one receiving the largest number of votes is chosen. 
When I become a citizen I shall vote; and I shall vote for the one whom 
I believe to be most able to fill the office. When I become a citizen of 
the United States I shall be a citizen of my native country no longer. I 
may love my native land, but I love the Government of America better, 
because under its laws all citizens are free and equal. This is not only 
a law of man but it is a law of God. 

e ' <ls am not voana to ve /oya/ to me oSrittea Stated to 
A/eade mwiear. zJr am &oa?ia to ve toyat to tn>e oSnctea* 
stated vecaccde c_y ttve an>aeb cti tawd ana am cti ctttfren,/ ana* 
itmetneb tt natiti me oi itmetAei, ct vene/£fo me <Jr am ovtc'aeot 
to 6e toya/. J ""—President Woodrow Wilson. 

THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 

Before America was discovered most men believed the world to be flat. 
Christopher Columbus believed that the world was round and that if he 
should sail westward from Europe across the Atlantic Ocean he would 
reach India. 

Columbus was a poor but a wise man. From his boyhood he followed 
the sea. For years Columbus endeavored to secure money to enable him 
to make a voyage into the unknown parts of the world. After years of 
failure he finally persuaded the King and Queen of Spain to give him three 
ships with which to go on his voyage. After every preparation was made 
Columbus sailed with his three ships (the Santa Maria, the Nina, and the 
Pinta) on the morning of August 3, 1492, from Palos, Spain, in search of 
the unknown route to India, a land of romance and riches tempting to 
the seafaring man. The weeks that followed were filled with anxiety for 
Columbus. At length his sailors declared that they would go no farther, 
and demanded that the ships be turned back. Believing as they did that 
the world was flat, they thought that if the ships continued in the same 
direction for a great length of time they would come to the end of the 
world and would drop off into space. Columbus, however, pleaded with 



2\ student's textbook. 

the men for a few days more before turning back. He had seen branches 
of trees with green leaves on them floating in the water, and had seen 
some strange birds flying through the air. In spite of these signs of land, 
the sailors insisted upon a return. In the next few days the air grew 
soft and balmy and one night Columbus discerned a light moving about 
as though being carried in the hand of some one walking. He called his 
sailors and pointed to this evidence of life. At dawn the next day 
Columbus saw before him shores lined with green trees and white sand. 
All of the sailors crowded to the rail to look at the strange new land, 
little dreaming that they were going through the open door to a New 
World with all of the opportunities for mankind which it has been found 
to hold. Columbus did not realize the vastness of the discovery he had 
made, nor dream that a little more than 400 years later a single nation 
of the New World would have a population of more than 100,000,000, 
including people coming from all parts of the Old World to the new land 
which he had discovered, to make their homes and to enjoy peace in the 
pursuit of a livelihood. He did not know then about such a Government 
as exists to-day in America. It would have been impossible in the days 
of Columbus to find a public school open to the native-born people of 
any country, while in America free schools are open not only to native- 
born Americans but to all foreigners living in America, of whatever age, 
who will make the effort to attend them. Even to-day in no other 
country can I find the way open to secure an education so easily as I 
can in America. It is because it freely offers to the individual person 
such advantages that I have learned to love America and have come to 
school to seek those advantages. 

THE INDIANS. 

When Columbus discovered America he found a strange people living 
here. He did not know what country he had discovered, but thought 
it was India. Believing this, he called the strange people Indians. The 
American Indian has skin the color of copper. He has dark eyes, long 
black hair, high cheek bones, and a smooth face; and he stands very erect. 
He has been called the true child of the forest. He knew nothing of the 
ways of civilization, but was a master of the, secrets of the woods, because 
his life was spent wholly in the midst of the wilds of nature, and he dwelt 
in tents built of dried skins of animals or of bricks made of sun-baked 
earth. His house was called a "wigwam." The Indian woman was 
called a "squaw" and did all the work of the house and garden. The 
Indian man was called a "warrior" or "brave," and spent his life in 
hunting wild animals, fishing, making canoes, and warring with his 
enemies. When an Indian was fighting he was said to be "on the 
warpath. " He was trained from his boyhood to be a warrior and to use 
the bow and arrow and tomahawk. The tomahawk is a weapon shaped 
like a hatchet, and the Indian warrior could throw a tomahawk with 



student's textbook. 25 

deadly aim. The Indians were found to be living in groups or tribes, and 
to this day continue to live in this manner in a few instances. In their 
tribal life the Indians wear blankets of bright colors and decorate them- 
selves with feathers and gaudy paint. Each tribe had a head man called 
a chief or "sachem," who governed the members of the tribe. They 
had certain laws which were well enforced. They worshiped the sun, 
the stars, the moon, and the lightning, and prayed to their Great Spirit, 
although they knew nothing of God. They believed that when an 
Indian was killed in battle or died he went to the Happy Hunting Grounds, 
where he enjoyed an abundance of fishing, hunting, and feasting. For 
the most part the Indians have become semicivilized, living to a large 
extent on supplies furnished by the United States Government. This 
system of Government care of the Indians is on the theory of payment 
to them for the lands taken from them for the use of white men. In 
many cases the lands belonging to the tribes have been "allotted in 
severalty," that is, each member of the tribe has been given title to his 
portion of the land. In most of these cases the Indians have become 
American citizens. Some of them have held high offices in the States 
and a few have been sent to the United States Senate or the House of 
Representatives 

LIFE OF WASHINGTON. 

George Washington became the first President of the United States of 
America, although he was born and grew to manhood a British subject, 
and in common with all loyal British subjects in the American Colonies 
he endeavored to preserve a true allegiance to the sovereignty of his 
birth as long as such allegiance remained possible. 

He was born February 22, 1732, in Westmoreland County, in the Colony 
of Virginia, on a farm on Bridges Creek, a branch of the Potomac, upon 
which river the capital of the United States was located later and called 
Washington in his honor. 

Much of the instruction of his school days was received from his mother, 
as the schools during his lifetime offered little opportunity for education 
beyond the bare necessities of reading, writing, and arithmetic. In those 
days there were no night schools for children, and no thought of night 
schools for grown people. 

When Washington was 42 years old he was chosen as a representative 
to the First Continental Congress, and the next year was a member of 
the Second Continental Congress. By accepting the position of Delegate 
to the Continental Congress, Washington clearly declared his intention to 
become an American citizen. On June 17, 1775, he was chosen by Con- 
gress as the commander in chief of the Army. Gen. Washington took 
command of the Army at Cambridge, in Massachusetts Colony, on July 
3, 1775. By this act he severed his allegiance to the King of England. 
For seven years he struggled against the greatest odds and suffered the 
severest hardships to win the title of citizen of this Republic. His 



26 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK, 

sacrifices were not in vain; he succeeded, and he led the people to com- 
plete national independence. 

Washington was born in obscurity, under an autocratic form of govern- 
ment; but by living a life devoted to the highest principles his name has 
become honored not only in the land of his birth and the Nation which 
he led to victory but throughout the entire civilized world. He might 
have become the king of his people, but chose the course which would 
lead to equal freedom and liberty for all. Twice he was honored as 
the choice of his country for President, and at the end of the second term 
he patriotically refused another nomination and retired to private life. 

He died at his home, Mount Vernon, Va., in 1799. Since that time 
Mount Vernon has been the Mecca of all who love the principles of freedom 
and liberty upon which this Nation was founded. 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 

On February 12, 1809, in a rude log cabin in Kentucky, near Hodgen- 
ville, Abraham Lincoln was born. He was the greatest President since 
Washington. In his boyhood he led the hard life of the pioneer who has 
done so much to develop our Nation into a stalwart people. His parents 
were very poor, and there were no public schools in the entire country 
such as now are to be found everywhere throughout the land. Without 
money to buy books and compelled to make his living by manual labor, 
he obtained his education principally by reading and studying borrowed 
books at night. 

When he was 15 or 16 years old he was doing the rough, heavy work of 
a grown man, and while still a boy he cut trees and split them into rails 
to make the fences for his father's farm. He also built the cabin for the 
family to live in when they moved to Illinois. He studied law at such 
odd hours as he could find and became a successful lawyer. At the age 
of 24 he was chosen by his neighbors to represent them in the State 
legislature at Springfield, 111., the capital of the State. By continued 
study, he acquired a thorough working knowledge of the English lan- 
guage, and although he had great powers of eloquence, his language was 
always simple and direct. In 1846 he was elected to the House of Repre- 
sentatives in Washington and served one term. For 10 years after his 
term in Congress he practiced law. During that time he became known 
all over the country as a wise and able American. Lincoln was opposed 
to slavery and spoke freely against it in all public debates; in 1858 he 
was a candidate for United States Senator and, because of his determined 
stand upon this question, was defeated at the election. But his wisdom 
had so impressed the country that he was nominated for President in 
i860 and elected. 

In January, 1861, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Loui- 
siana adopted ordinances of secession; Texas followed on February 1, 
and on February 4 representatives of these States met at Montgomery, 



student's textbook. 27 

Ala., and formed the Confederate States of America, demanding recogni- 
tion as a separate nation. Following his inauguration as President, 
Lincoln declared the seceding States to be in insurrection and called for 
volunteers to preserve the Union. The war which followed lasted 
through Lincoln's first term as President and until April 8, 1865, in his 
second term. One week after the Southern Army surrendered at Ap- 
pomattox, Va., the whole Nation was shocked by the assassination of 
the President, who had become loved by all. In all the trying period of 
the war Lincoln led the people wisely and ably, and with a heart full of 
sympathy for the South as well as the North. By his emancipation 
proclamation he practically ended slavery in this country on January 1, 
1863. 

LONGFELLOW. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the most popular of America's poets, 
was born on February 27, 1807, in Portland, Me. ; died on March 21, 1881, 
and was buried at Cambridge, Mass. Like most American boys, he got 
his early education in the public schools. He attended the Portland city 
schools for a number of years, later entering Portland Academy to pre- 
pare himself for college. At Bowdoin College, where he was the youngest 
member of his class, he ranked high in scholarship and was very popular 
with his teachers as well as with his classmates. He was graduated with 
honors, standing second in his class. After graduation he studied law 
for a time in his father's office, but gave up his legal studies to accept the 
professorship of modern languages at Bowdoin. Later he was appointed 
professor of modern languages at Harvard. 

From his early days Longfellow showed a decided talent for poetry, 
his poems being widely published and appreciated. His interest con- 
tinued throughout the years of his service as a college instructor, and in 
1854 he resigned his professorship at Harvard to devote his entire time 
to literature. The following year he published The Song of Hiawatha, 
a poem dealing with the legends of the O jib way Indians. Many critics 
have declared this his greatest work. The following is one of Long- 
fellow's shorter poems: 

THE BUILDERS. 

All are architects of Fate, 

Working in these walls of Time; 
Some with massive deeds and great,. 

Some with ornaments of rhyme. 

Nothing useless is, or low; 

Each thing in its place is best; 
And what seems but idle show 

Strengthens and supports the rest. 

For the structure that we raise, 

Time is with materials filled ; 
Our to-days and yesterdays 

Are the blocks with which we build. 



2% student's textbook. 

Truly shape and fashion these; 

Leave no yawning gaps between; 
Think not, because no man sees, 

Such things will remain unseen. 

In the elder days of Art, 

Builders wrought with greatest care 
Each minute and unseen part; 

For the Gods see everywhere. 

Let us do our work as well, 

Both the unseen and the seen; 
Make the house where Gods may dwell 

Beautiful, entire, and clean. 

Else our lives are incomplete, 

Standing in these walls of Time, 
Broken stairways, where the feet 

Stumble as they seek to climb. 

Build to-day, then, strong and sure, 

With a firm and ample base; 
And ascending and secure 

Shall to-morrow find its place. 

Thus alone can we attain 

To those turrets, where the eye 
Sees the world as one vast plain, 

And one boundless reach of sky. 

LIBERTY. 

What is liberty? Why is this a free country? Liberty is the right 
to be secure in your person and property. It is the right to be governed 
by law and not by men. This is a government of laws, not a government 
of men. That is the distinction between this Government and many other 
Governments. Liberty is not a privilege to do what one pleases, regard- 
less of other people or of other people's property. Liberty is the right 
to participate in the making of laws and in the selection of the men who 
hold the offices of the Government. The men who hold the offices of 
this Government are not rulers. The President of the United States is 
not a ruler; the Members of Congress are not rulers; the judges of the 
courts are not rulers. They simply perform the duties of their respective 
offices, prescribed by law. This is a free country because everything 
the Government does is done in pursuance of law. It is a free country 
because there is a Constitution which limits the right to make laws, 
and prohibits the making of laws which would infringe upon the natural 
rights of our people. The Constitution secures these rights in this way. 

The Government is divided into three departments — the executive, the 
legislative, and the judicial. Each of these departments of the Govern- 
ment performs certain functions, and they are checks upon one another. 
If the legislative power, the judicial power, and the executive power were 



student's textbook. 29 

all centered in one man, or in one set of men, whether a few or a majority, 
this country would cease to be a government of laws, and would then 
become a government of men. It would be tyrannical and oppressive like 
all governments of men. 

THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION. 

The Constitution of the United States is the highest and most permanent 
law of the country. It is the basis of government for the Nation as a 
whole and a guide for the States which compose it. 

This Constitution was formed and adopted after the United States 
became a free and independent Nation. Constitutional government is 
considered by the American people the best form of government in the 
world. The Constitution may be changed or amended by a vote of the 
people, but very few amendments have been made within the last hundred 
years. 

Every American citizen should read and study the Federal Constitution. 
In it he will find the general plan of the Government, the code of rights 
and privileges, and the protection guaranteed to all loyal Americans. 

All naturalized citizens must take the oath of allegiance and swear to 
support and defend the Constitution before they are given final citizen- 
ship papers. After they have been made citizens they will enjoy the 
same protection and privileges as are extended to the native-born 
Americans. 

When the Constitution was adopted there were only 1 3 States and less 
then 4,000,000 people in the United States. Now there are 48 States and 
over 100,000,000 people. But the great law embodied in the Constitution 
means the same to the greater Nation as it did when the States were 
few and the population was small. It is now, as it was then, the govern- 
ment of the people, by the people, and for the people. 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

WE THE people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish 
justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the 
general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, 
do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 

article 1. 

Section i . All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the 
United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 

Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every 
second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall 
have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State 
legislature. 

No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of 25 
years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when 
elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 



30 student's textbook. 

[Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States 
which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, 
which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including 
those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three- 
fifths of all other persons.] The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subse- 
quent term of 10 years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of 
Representatives shall not exceed one for every 30,000, but each State shall have at 
least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of 
New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island 
and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, 
Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, 
South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive 
authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and 
shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Sec. 3 . The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each 
State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have 
one vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, 
they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Sena- 
tors of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the sec- 
ond class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration 
of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies 
happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, 
the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of 
the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of 30 years 
and been 9 years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall 
have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in 
the absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of 
the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for 
that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United 
States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted 
without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from 
office and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under 
the United States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject 
to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

Sec. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Repre- 
sentatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Con- 
gress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places 
of choosing Senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be 
on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 

Sec. 5. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications 
of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business, 
but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel 
the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each 
House may provide. 



student's textbook. 31 

Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for 
disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a Member. 

Each House shall keep a Journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish 
the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the 
yeas and nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of 
one-fifth of those present, be entered on the Journal. 

Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, 
adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two 
Houses shall be sitting. 

Sec. 6. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their 
services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. 
They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged 
from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in 
going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, 
they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be 
appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall 
have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during 
such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a Mem- 
ber of either House during his continuance in office. 

Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; 
but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. 

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate 
shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if 
he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it with his objections to that 
House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on 
their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds 
of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, 
to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by 
two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of 
both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons 
voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respec- 
tively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within 10 days (Sundays 
excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like 
manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its 
return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House 
of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be 
presented to the President of the United States; and, before the same shall take effect, 
shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two- 
thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limita- 
tions prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, 
and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare 
of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout 
the United States; 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and 
with the Indian tribes; 

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of 
bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard 
of weights and measures; 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of 
the United States; 



32 student's textbook. 

To establish post offices and post roads; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to 
authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses 
against the law of nations; 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning 
captures on land and water; 

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for 
a longer term than two years; 

To provide and maintain a navy; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress 
insurrections, and repel invasions; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing 
such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving 
to the States respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of train- 
ing the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not ex- 
ceeding 10 miles square) as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of 
Congress, become the seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise 
like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State 
in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, 
and other needful buildings; and 

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution 
the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Govern- 
ment of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now exist- 
ing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the 
year 1808, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding $10 
for each person. 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in 
cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

No capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census 
or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports 
of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State be 
obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in consequence of appropriations 
made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures 
of all public money shall be published from time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person holding any 
office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept 
of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, 
prince, or foreign State. 

Sec. 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant 
letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but 
gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post 
facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on 
imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspec- 
tion laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports 



student's textbook. 33 

or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such laws 
shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep 
troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with 
another State, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, 
or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE h. 

Section i . The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States 
of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with 
the vice president, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows: 

Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, 
a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to 
which the State may be entitled in the Congress; but no Senator or Representative, or 
person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed 
an elector. 

[The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, 
of whcm one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. 
And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes 
for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The Presi- 
dent of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the 
greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such 
majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall 
immediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a major- 
ity, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose 
the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, 
the representation from each States having one vote : a quorum for this purpose shall 
consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the 
States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, 
the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice President . 
But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose 
from them by ballot the Vice President.] 1 

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which 
they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 

No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the 
time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; 
neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the 
age of 35 years, and been 14 years a resident within the United States. 

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or 
inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve 
on the Vice President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, 
death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring 
what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the 
disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation which 
shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for w T hich he shall have 
been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from 
the United States, or any of them. 

1 Superseded by twelfth amendment, p. 37. 
42783°— 21 3+4 



34 student's textbook. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or 
affirmation: " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office 
of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, 
and defend the Constitution of the United States." 

Sec. 2. The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the 
United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual 
service of the United States; he may require the opinion in writing, of the principal 
officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties 
of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons 
for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make 
treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate 
and, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, 
other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers 
of the United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for and 
which shall be established by law: but the Congress may by law vest the appointment 
of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of 
law, or in the heads of departments. 

The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the 
recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their 
next session. 

Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of 
the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge 
necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, 
or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time 
of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 
receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be 
faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 

Sec. 4. The President, Vice President, and all civil officers of the United States 
shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, 
or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

article in. 

Section i. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme 
Court and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and 
establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their 
offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a 
compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

Sec 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under 
this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to 
which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more 
States; between a State and citizens of another State; between citizens of different 
States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different 
States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or 
subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those 
in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. 
In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate 
jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations 
as the Congress shall make. 

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such 
trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but 



student's textbook. 35 

when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the 
Congress may by law have directed. 

Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against 
them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person 
shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same 
overt act, or on confession in open court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder 
of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture except during the life of the 
person attainted. 

article iv. 

Section i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, 
records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by 
general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall 
be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Sec. 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities 
of citizens in the several States. 

A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee 
from justice and be found in another State, shall on demand of the executive authority 
of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having 
jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into 
another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from 
such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such 
service or labor may be due. 

Sec. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new 
State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any 
State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the 
consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regula- 
tions respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States; and 
nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the 
United States, or of any particular State. 

Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican 
form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and on applica- 
tion of the legislature or of the executive (when the legislature can not be convened) 
against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE v. 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall 
propose amendments to this Constitution, or on the application of the legislatures of 
two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, 
which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Consti- 
tution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by 
conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may 
be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made 
prior to 1808 shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section 
of the first article ; and that no State without its consent shall be deprived of its equal 
suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption of this 
Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as 
under the Confederation. 

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pur- 
suance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made under the authority of 



2,6 student's textbook. 

the United States shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every State 
shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the con- 
trary notwithstanding. 

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned and the members of the several 
State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States 
and of the several States shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Con- 
stitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office 
or public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establish- 
ment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present the 17th day of 
September in the year of our Lord 1787 and of the independence of the United States 
of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. 
George Washington, president and deputy from Virginia. 
New Hampshire: John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. 
Massachusetts: Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. 
Connecticut: Wm. Saml. Johnson, Roger Sherman. 
New York: Alexander Hamilton. 
New Jersey: Wii. Livingston, David Brearley, Wm. Patterson, 

Jona. Dayton. 
Pennsylvania: B. Franklin, Robt. Morris, Thos. Fitzsimons, James 
Wilson, Thomas Mifflin, Geo. Clymer, Jared Ingersoll, Gouv. 
Morris. 
Delaware: Geo. Read, John Dickinson, Jaco. Broom, Gunning 

Bedford, jr., Richard Bassett. 
Maryland : James McHenry, Danl. Carroll, Dan. of St. Thos. Jenifer. 
Virginia: John Blair, James Madison, jr. 
North Carolina: Wm. Blount, Hu. Williamson, Richd. Dobbs 

Spaight. 
South Carolina: J. Rutledge, Charles Pinckney, Charles Cotes- 
worth Pinckney, Pierce Butler. 
Georgia: William Few, Abr. Baldwin. 

Attest: William Jackson, Secretary. 

Articles in Addition to, and Amendment of, the Constitution op the United 
States of America, Proposed by Congress, and Ratified by the Legisla- 
tures of the Several States, Pursuant to the Fifth Article of the Original 
Constitution. 

article 1. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting 
the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the 
right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress 
of grievances. 

ARTICLE 11. 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right 
of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of 
the owner/nor in time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 



student's textbook. 37 



ARTICLE IV. . 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, 
against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no warrants shall 
issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly- 
describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE v. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless 
on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or 
naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; 
nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life 
or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, 
nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI. 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public 
trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been 
committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be 
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses 
against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to 
have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII. 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed $20, the right 
of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise 
reexamined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the 
common law. 

article vm. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and 
unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE ix. 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny 
or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE x. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited 
by it to the States, are reserved to the States, respectively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI. 

"• The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any 
suit in law or equity, commenced, or prosecuted against one of the United States by 
citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 

ARTICLE XII. 

The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for President 
and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as Presi- 
dent, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President, and they shall 
make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as 
Vice President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and 



38 student's textbook. 

certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the Government of the United States, 
directed to the President of the Senate; the President of the Senate shall, in presence 
of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall 
then be counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall 
be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the 
highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the 
House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But 
in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from 
each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or 
members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be neces- 
sary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President 
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 4th day of March 
next following, then the Vice President shall act as President, as in the case of the 
death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the 
greatest number of votes as Vice President, shall be the Vice President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a 
majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the 
Vice President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole num- 
ber of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 
But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to 
that of Vice President of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII. 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for 
crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United 
States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE xi v. 

Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to 
the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein 
they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privi- 
leges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any 
person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor deny to any person 
within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Sec 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according 
to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, 
excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the 
choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Represen- 
tatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of 
the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being 
21 years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for 
participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be 
reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the 
whole number of male citizens 21 years of age in such State. 

Sec 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of 
President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United 
States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a Member of 
Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, 
or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the 
United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 39 

given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds 
of each House, remove such disability. 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, 
including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppress- 
ing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States 
nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection 
or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any 
slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the 
provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE xv. 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or 
abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous 
condition of servitude. 

Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legis- 
lation. 

ARTICLE xvi. 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever 
source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard 
to any census or enumeration. 

article xvn. 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, 
elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. 
The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the 
most numerous branch of the State legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the execu- 
tive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, 
That the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make tem- 
porary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature 
may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any 
Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. 

HOW THE CONSTITUTION WAS MADE. 

Before the Revolution of 1776 the American colonies belonged to Great 
Britain and were governed by laws enacted in England. When these 
laws became oppressive the American colonies rebelled against the 
authority of Great Britain and declared themselves to be independent 
colonies. 

After a war which lasted nearly eight years, the American colonies 
won their independence and formed a Government of their own. 

In order to agree upon a plan of government the people of the 13 free 
States elected representatives to a convention which met in Philadelphia 
in 1787. After a long time and much discussion the Constitution was 
completed and offered for adoption by the several States of the Union. 

When nine of the 13 States had voted to adopt it, the Constitution 
became the law of the Republic, and the new Government was organized 



40 student's textbook. 

according to its requirements. This was in 1789, when the first Congress 
met and the first President was inaugurated, in New York City. 

Many States have been added since Washington served as the first 
President and some changes have been made, but the Constitution is 
essentially what it was when the United States of America became a 
free and independent Nation. 

THE CITIZEN'S SHARE IN GOVERNMENT. 

The United States has a republican form of government; that is, the 
country is governed by representatives chosen by the people. 

The choice of Government officials is made by means of elections held 
at certain times and places. The person who receives the highest 
number of votes for an official position is declared elected and serves as 
the people's representative for a certain number of years, or until his 
successor is chosen. 

The right and power to decide who shall make and enforce the laws, 
therefore, rest first of all with the private citizen who is qualified to vote. 
By his vote or ballot he helps to decide who shall represent him in the 
Government, upon the general principle that the majority shall rule. 

The voter is entitled to cast his ballot upon certain conditions, deter- 
mined largely by the laws of the State in which he lives. Some of the 
requirements are : 

1. He must be a native-born or a naturalized citizen of the United 
States, 2 1 years old or over. 

2. He must pay taxes for the support of the Government. 

3. He must have lived a certain time in the State and in the district 
where he desires to vote. 

4. He must be registered as a voter in the district in which he lives 
before the elections are held each year. 

5. He must obey the laws of the country and recognize and respect the 
officials of the Government as the persons in authority. 

The right to vote in the United States is given as a trust and should 
always be used for the public good. A man should not vote for his own 
interests alone, but for the common good of all. If he allows his vote 
to be bought or sold he is guilty of a great crime, may be severely pun- 
ished, and may also lose his citizenship. 

The voter has it in his power to make our Government good or bad. 
If it is placed in the hands of bad men all the people will suffer; if good 
officials are elected all the people will be benefited. 

THE PRIMARY AND THE GENERAL ELECTION. 

In nearly all States a first or primary election is held to select the candi- 
dates to represent the several political parties or to determine the men 



student's textbook. 41 

who are most acceptable to the voters. In the final or general election 
the voters choose their officials or representatives from the candidates 
nominated at the primary election. 

It is quite as important for the voter to take part in the nomination of 
candidates as in the final election, for only in this way can his estimate 
and his choice of candidates for office be expressed. 

There are many questions, apart from the choice of officials, referred 
to the voters for decision. The manner of voting upon such questions, 
however, is the same as in voting for men. 

All citizens who are entitled to vote ought to remember that only 
those who actually cast the ballot have a part in the government of the 
country and in the choosing of candidates for office. In the election 
every vote counts one, regardless of wealth, nativity, or position in life. 
If a citizen fails to vote, he does not count for or against the officials 
chosen. He is not taking part in representative government. If his 
failure to vote is due to carelessness or indifference, he is not a good 
citizen. 

VOTING BY SECRET BALLOT. 

The ballot is the citizen's individual expression in representative 
government. By it he tells who should act for him in making or en- 
forcing the laws. 

The candidates he votes for should represent his first choice, and the 
policies he favors should express his best judgment upon the questions 
submitted to him as a voter. To enable him to do this at all times the 
voting should be by secret ballot. 

When a citizen has voted by secret ballot no one else may know how 
he voted, and no one should be permitted to control or to influence his 
vote against his own convictions of what is best. This form of voting 
is sometimes called the Australian ballot, because it was first used in the 
Government of Australia. 

The short ballot gives the voter the chance to vote direct for the men 
who will be held responsible in governmental service, regardless of 
political pledges or party platforms. The character and efficiency of 
the candidates are alone considered in the casting of the ballot. This 
form of election makes the chosen officials directly responsible to the 
voters, and enables the citizens to have the best chance to secure com- 
petent representatives. 

THE PEOPLE'S RIGHT IN LAWMAKING. 

In a truly democratic form of government the laws should be essen- 
tially what the people want them to be. If some new measure or law 
is desired, the people may be given the power to express that desire and 
call for the enactment of the new law by their representatives. This is 
called the initiative in government. 



42 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

The people's representatives may pass, or enact, a new law subject to 
the approval of the voters at an election called for the purpose. This is 
known as the referendum, and gives the people the direct power in the 
final enactment of laws. 

In a government where the officials are chosen by majority rule a 
public office is a public trust. Positions are held only so long as the 
officials are faithful to the highest and best interests of the people who 
elected them. When the chosen officials fail to represent their con- 
stituents properly, or by some official act prove themselves unworthy of 
public trust, then the people may be given the power to remove such 
officials and elect others to serve. This form of law is known as the 
recall. 

GOVERNMENT AS AN ORGANIZATION. 

The people of any community exercise their right to local self-govern- 
ment by electing officials from their own number. The larger the unit 
of government the farther removed are the chosen representatives from 
the people they serve and the more general is the nature and the function 
of the government established. 

The borough or the township in the county, or the ward in the city, 
is the smallest possible unit in the American system of government. 
The officials elected for these districts are for minor positions only, and 
as a rule no definite salary is paid to the chosen officials. 

The county or the city is the second unit in local government, and the 
officials chosen are mainly for executive duties with fixed salaries or 
fees for required services. 

The State is made up of counties, and the officials chosen represent the 
people in making the laws, enforcing enacted laws, or giving them 
judicial interpretation. In the State the three distinctive branches of 
government are readily apparent : 

(a) The executive department administers and enforces the laws. 
The highest officer is the governor. 

(b) The legislative department enacts or makes the laws. The per- 
sons chosen to make the laws are called representatives, delegates, or 
senators. 

(c) The judicial department interprets or explains the laws. The 
officials are called judges. 

The Federal Government is the government of all the States, consid- 
ered as a single Nation. The executive officers of the United States are 
mainly the President and his Cabinet. Bach State elects representatives 
to help make the laws for the whole country. This lawmaking body is 
called the Congress of the United States. The judges appointed to 
interpret the laws compose the Supreme Court of the United States. 
The judges of this and other Federal courts constitute the judicial 
department of the General Government. 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 43 

BECOMING AN AMERICAN CITIZEN. 

The process of becoming a citizen of a country is called naturalization. 

The people who come from other countries to make the United States 
their home become American citizens when they are naturalized. 

In practically every county in the United States there is a naturaliza- 
tion court, where application for citizenship may be made. 

The first step toward naturalization is for the new American to declare 
before the clerk of the court his desire and purpose to become a citizen 
of the United States. This is called the declaration of intention. This 
declaration may be made immediately after landing in America, or at 
any time afterward, provided the declarant is at least 18 years old. 

The declarant for citizenship must give his full name, age, occupation, 
the country from which he came, the name of the ship in which he 
crossed the ocean to come to America (if he had to cross it), and where he 
lives at the time. 

After the desired information has been recorded in the naturalization 
office, the court gives the declarant a certificate, or first paper, as it is 
generally called. The charge for this first paper is $i. 

After the applicant for citizenship has lived in the United States for 
five or more years he may petition the court to grant him final or com- 
plete citizenship. During that time the public schools will help him to 
learn to read and to use the English language intelligently, inform him- 
self as to the nature, form, and spirit of American Government, and the 
duties and responsibilities of a citizen. If he meets the requirements of 
the court he will receive what is known as the second paper. 

i . The petitioner must have completed five years' residence within the 
United States and at least the last year in the State in which he applies 
for citizenship. 

2. He must take with him to the office of the clerk of the court two 
citizens who have known him for the part of the five years that he has 
lived in the State. 

3. He must be a person of good moral character. 

4. He must be over 21 years old. 

5. He must have held his first paper at least two years. 

6. The cost of filing this petition is $4. 

Ninety days after filing the petition the petitioner goes again to the 
court to get his final naturalization paper. He will take with him the 
two citizen witnesses who will testify in court from personal knowledge 
as to his American residence and his character and fitness for citizenship. 

If the court is satisfied that the petitioner has complied with the legal 
requirements and that he is qualified to become a citizen of the United 
States, he will take before the court the following oath : 

OATH OF ALLEGIANCE TO THE UNITED STATES. 

I hereby declare, on oath, that I absolutely and entirely renounce and abjure all 
allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, and 
particularly to the of , of whom I have heretofore been a 



£4 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 



DUPLICATE 



PETITION FOR NATURALIZATION 



fo f*. Eoncrable th* . 



,f»» j>etftf<» o/" ; . hereby filed, respectfully ihoweth, 

Krtt. My place of residence it . 

(Ctve oumhcr. street. dty or wn. end Sua.) 
Second. My occupation It , . .,- 



Third, I toot "born on the day of 

fourth. I emJ/rated to the United States from- 



•no Domini 1 , and arrived in the United Statet, at the port of.. 

anno Domini 1 , on the vettel '. ~ 




Seventh. lam not a disbeliever in or oppoted to organized government or a member of or affiliated with any organization or body of persons teaching disbelief in or opposed 
to organized government. I am not a polygamltt nor a believer In the practice of polygamy. I am attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United Statet. and It tt my 
intention to become a citizen of the United States and to renounce absolutely and forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, and 

particularly to ofwhomatthll time I am a subject, and It it my Intsnticn 

to reside permanently in the United States. 

gighth. lam able to specie the English faaguago. 

fflnth. I have resided continuously In the United States of America for the term of five years at least immediately preceding the date of this petition, to Kit, tine* the) 

!_ day of , anno Domini 1 , and in the State of : _ , continuously next preceding the dot* of 

4hls petition, since the day of , anno Domlnfi . being a residence within thit State of at least on* year next preceding the data 

ef this petition. 

Tenth. I have not heretofore mode petition for citizenship to any court. (I made petition for citizenship to the Court of 

at , on the ,. day of , anno Domini J , and the 



told petition wot denied by the said Court for the following reasons and < 



. . « . and the cause of such denial hat since been cured or removed.) 

Attached hereto and made a part of this petition are my declaration j>f intention to become a citizen of the United Statet and the certificate from the Department of later, 
together with my affidavit and the affidavit* of the two verifying witnesses thereto, required by law. Wherefore your petitioner prays that he may be admitted a citizen of the United 
States of America. 



(Complote end true signature of petitioner.) 



Declaration of Intention tfo and Certificate of Arrival Mo from Department of Labor filed thte day of. 



r Com.—U petitioner antral u the United Sutei oh on • MOBJt Jtnre ». uoo, strike out the e-ards reedlnj; "end Certlttoue of Antral No. ton Deperanoot o 



AFFIDAVITS OF PETITIONER AND WITNESSES 



The aforesaid petitioner being duly sworn, deposes and says that he it the petitioner in the above-entitled proceedingt: that he hat read the foregoing petition and knows the 
thereof; that the told petition Is tlgned with his full, true name; that the tome it true of hit own knowledge, except at to matters therein stated to be alleged upon information 
belief, and that as to those matter! he beUevet It to be true. 



, occupation :_ residing at . 

, , occupation , residing at . 



, duly, and respectively sworn, deposes and says that he it a citizen of the United Statet of America; that hf hat personally known.. 



, ,>*- petitioner above mentioned, to have resided in the United Statet < 

t preceding the date of filing hit petition, since the , day of , , anno Domini 1 , and in the Stat* in which th* above* 

mailed petition it mad* continuously eince the _^ day of -. anno Domini I ; and that he hat perianal knowledge the* 

the said petitioner u a perton of good moral character, attached to th* principles of the Conttttution of the United Statet, and that the petitioner It in ovary way qvallfitd. In kit 
•mptnlon. to be admitted a otttxan ofth* UniUd Statet. 



ejnbtortbed and noon to before me by the above-named petition*, and witnesses In th* office ofth* Clerk of told Court thit . 
•f anna Domini U 



student's textbook. 



45 



subject; that I will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the United States 
of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic, and that I will bear true faith 
and allegiance to the same. 

(Note. — In renunciation of title of nobility, add the following as part of the renunci- 
ation and continue with the oath of allegiance before it is executed : " I further renounce 
the title of (give title), an order of nobility, which I have heretofore held.") 

When these things have been done the clerk of the court will make and 
give to the new citizen the certificate of naturalization. 




EXTRACT FROM ADDRESS BY WOODROW WILSON, PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED 

STATES. 



You have just taken an oath of allegiance to the United States. Of allegiance to 
whom? Of allegiance to no one, unless it be God — certainly not of allegiance to 
those who temporarily represent this great Government. You have taken an oath of 
allegiance to a great ideal, to a great body of principles, to a great hope of the human 
race. You ha^e said, "We are going to America not only to earn a living, not only 
to seek the things which it was more difficult to obtain where we were born, but to 
help forward the great enterprises of the human spirit — to let men know that every- 
where in the world there are men who will cross strange oceans and go where a speech 
is spoken which is alien to them if they can but satisfy their quest for what their 
spirits crave ; knowing that whatever the speech there is but one longing and utterance 
of the human heart, and that is for liberty and justice." 



46 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 
THE GENERAL STRUCTURE, 

The many powers of town, city, and State government might seem to 
be so complete that there is very little need of any higher political organi- 
zation. Taxes are levied by cities and towns, schools are maintained by 
them, protection of life and property is provided by their police and fire 
departments, civil and criminal laws are made by State legislatures and 
enforced by municipal and State police and courts. Industries and 
public health are regulated and controlled by local boards and State com- 
missions. The privilege of voting is granted to such inhabitants as each 
State may decide are entitled to it, and in many other ways the rights, 
privileges, and duties of the people are defined and controlled by the 
city or town or State. 

In addition to these governments, however, and above all is the great 
National Government under which each of the local governing powers 
exists and whose authority is supreme in certain matters, whose laws must 
be complied with by State, county, city, and town in those affairs which 
are considered of national and not merely of local importance. The 
coining of money, the making of treaties, levying of war and making 
peace, imposing customs duties, conducting the postal service, are matters 
the control of which is not left to States, cities, or towns, but is under 
the supervision of the National Government. 

These important matters and all business connected with them are 
directed by departments of the Federal or General Government. The 
laws governing them are made by the legislative assembly of the United 
States, the National Congress at Washington, D. C. The laws and regu- 
lations are enforced by the United States courts and by the United States 
executive departments, at the head of which is the chief officer of the 
Nation, the President. The President occupies much the same position 
in the National Government as the governor does in the State, the mayor 
in a city, or the selectmen in a town. He has general charge of executing 
the laws of the country and appoints such inferior officers as seem neces- 
sary to carry into effect the laws of the land. The Congress makes the 
national laws in the same manner as the State legislature makes State 
laws, and the United States courts try cases arising under these laws as 
the various State courts do cases arising under the State laws. Commis- 
sions and departments have charge of commerce, the Army and Navy, 
finances, and other matters which concern the people of the whole coun- 
try, and the relation of the various States to each other. These national 
departments, commissions, and bureaus are given powers by the Consti- 
tution of the United States and by the United States statutes and their 
authority in matters which come under their control is above the author- 
ity of States, cities, and towns. 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 47 

To understand how such power as is exercised by the National Govern- 
ment was first given to it by the States and by the people (for all govern- 
ing power in this country is given to the governing bodies by the people), 
it is necessary to study the early history of the country, when the States 
were colonies of England and when, after securing their independence, 
they for a time thought that sufficient government was provided in city, 
town, and State laws, courts, and officers. We shall see how for a time 
they struggled along without any real central National Government 
and how the impending ruin of America caused them to form a Con- 
stitution which established the great National Government and gave it 
power and authority and the means to enforce its laws. It is difficult 
for a European to understand the relation between our National and 
our State Governments, because there are no governments similar to 
ours among the European nations. Here we have two governments 
covering the same ground, each in its own sphere commanding obedience 
of the same citizens. 

A great writer has likened the American Government to a large building 
and the States to smaller buildings standing on the same ground, yet 
different from each other. As the land is covered by a number of 
smaller shrines and chapels built at different times and in different styles 
of architecture, each complete in itself, then over them and including 
them all is reared a new structure with its own loftier ceiling, its own walls 
which may perhaps be raised on and include the walls of the minor shrines 
in its own internal plan; the identity of the earlier buildings, however, 
has not been disturbed, and if the larger structure were to disappear the 
smaller ones would still remain as they were originally, separate and 
distinct buildings. So, the American States are now all inside of the 
Union and they have become subordinate parts of it; yet the Union is 
more than a number of States and the States themselves are more than 
mere departments of the Union. He suggests that the Union might be 
dissolved and the States might survive as independent self-governing 
communities. This was practically their condition before they formed the 
Union, and it was their inability to command respect from the world 
and to live peaceably among themselves which caused them to form the 
greater political organization — the Union. 

Town and city governments have been studied first, because those 
were the first forms of government in America, and as these small settle- 
ments grew into English colonies, colonial and later State government 
developed. These colonies afterwards combined for mutual advantage, 
and after gaining their freedom from English rule, united to form a new 
Nation. 

COLONIAL PERIOD. 

This great Nation began, as you know from your history reading, with 
small settlements along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia made 
by English colonists in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. 



48 student's textbook. 

It is true that the Swedes had a small settlement in New Jersey and the 
Dutch had New Amsterdam at the mouth of the Hudson River, but the 
Swedes were early conquered by the Dutch and they in turn were con- 
quered by the English in 1 684. New Amsterdam then became the English 
colony of New York and the territory formerly occupied by the Swedes 
became the English colony of New Jersey. 

While the colonies were part of the English nation they nearly all had 
charters granted by the Sovereign of England which gave them certain 
rights and privileges — in fact, in most cases gave them the privilege of 
managing their own affairs. The governors in most cases, while they had 
a right to veto any laws passed by the legislative assemblies of the colonies, 
as a general rule did not do so because they generally depended upon the 
appropriation of money by the legislatures of the colonies for the salaries. 
In two of the colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut, the people them- 
selves elected the governor, and there the colonial assembly could make 
laws without his consent. In fact these two colonies were practically 
little republics. The control which England exercised over the colonies 
was chiefly the regulating of their relations with other nations, particularly 
the regulation of the commerce. Up to the time George III became 
King of England there was very little difficulty with the government of 
the colonies, but he made up his mind to enforce more strictly the com- 
mercial laws of England. 

The principal difficulty, however, arose when the King and the Par- 
liament attempted to levy taxes upon the aolonies to pay for the expenses 
of the French and Indian war. They proposed to raise money from the 
colonies by compelling the purchase of stamps which should be put on 
all important law and business papers and newspapers. The colonists 
resisted this because they claimed that they could be taxed only by their 
own legislative assemblies, and in 1765, in order that their resistance 
might be more effective, delegates from nine of the colonies met in New 
York in the assembly known as the Stamp Act Congress, which drew up 
a declaration of rights of the American colonies. The resistance of the 
colonies led to the repeal of the Stamp Act, but as England persisted in 
trying to tax the colonies in other ways, resistance continued and eventu- 
ally the quarrel between England and the colonies developed into open 
warfare. 

THE REVOLUTION. 

Before the war actually began, however, delegates from all the colonies 
had met in 1774 in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, in the First Conti- 
nental Congress, which protested against the treatment of the colonies by 
England and drew up a declaration of rights. Shortly after this, how- 
ever, actual fighting began in Massachusetts, and then a Second Conti- 
nental Congress was called in 1775, which met in Independence Hall in 
Philadelphia, and made itself temporarily a National Government. 



student's textbook. 49 

It took charge of commerce, national defense, organized a post office, 
raised an army, issued bills of credit, and in general made all such regu- 
lations as were necessary for the carrying on of the Government in time 
of war. This Congress had no authority given it by the people to per- 
form any of these acts — it was simply a revolutionary organization — but 
because of the necessity of conducting the war it was permitted to make 
laws and also to act as the executive department of the Government. 
Soon, however, the necessity was seen of having some plan of government 
that should define the rights and powers of this Congress. The Congress 
itself drew up a plan of union of the colonies into a permanent Govern- 
ment — the Articles of Confederation, which were finally ratified by all 
the colonies in 1781 and under which the Government was conducted 
until the adoption of our present Constitution in 1789. 

THIRTEEN NATIONS. 

While the Articles of Confederation gave the National Congress con- 
siderable power in the matter of making laws, it was given no power to 
enforce the laws that it made. Furthermore, the Congress could not 
pass laws of any kind without the consent of the State governments, and 
the taxes by which the Government must be carried on, although levied 
by the Congress, could not be collected unless the States saw fit to pay 
them. Furthermore, Congress had no power to regulate commerce with 
foreign nations or among the States, and the result was that, each State 
making its own customs regulations and collecting its own duties, the 
States were constantly quarreling. It was this commercial strife among 
the nations that led to the calling of a convention of delegates from the 
several States for the purpose of amending the Articles of Confederation. 
When this convention of delegates met, however, they decided that it 
was better to form a new plan of government than to try to amend the 
Articles of Confederation. 

ONE NATION. 

Therefore a constitutional convention was held in 1787, at which all 
the States were represented by their leading men, among them being 
such men as Washington, Madison, Hamilton, and Franklin. After 
various plans had been thoroughly discussed and many compromises had 
been made, they finally framed the Constitution as we have it to-day and 
submitted it to the States to be ratified. 

The principal sources of disagreement among the States with refer- 
ence to framing a constitution were whether or not representation in 
the Congress of the new Government should be in proportion to the 
population or should be equal for each State regardless of population; 
whether the negro slaves of the South should be counted in estimating 
the population; and whether Congress should have authority to forbid 

42783°— 21 i 



50 student's textbook. 

the importation of slaves. The small States wanted representation in 
the Congress to be the same for all States and the larger States wanted 
representation to be in proportion to the population. The matter was 
finally settled by a compromise whereby the representation in the upper 
branch of the National Congress — the United States Senate — should be 
equal, and in the lower house — the House of Representatives — in pro- 
portion to population. The question of counting negro slaves was finally 
settled by a compromise whereby five negroes were counted equal to 
three white people when using population as a basis for either direct 
taxation or representation. The other dispute was compromised by 
forbidding Congress to pass a law prohibiting the importation of slaves 
before the year 1808. These were the three principal difficulties to be 
overcome in framing the Constitution, but there were many other differ- 
ences of opinion which were settled by compromise. 

Before the Constitution should go into effect it was to be ratified by 
conventions called in the different States for that purpose, and when 
ratified by nine States it was to become binding upon those States. The 
Constitution was framed in 1787, and in June, 1788, the ninth State 
necessary for the establishment of the Constitution had ratified it, while 
the States that had not ratified it at this time did so later. In 1790 
Rhode Island, the last of the States to do so, adopted it, and it became 
the fundamental law of the whole United States. 

The period between the framing of the Constitution and its ratification 
by the necessary nine States was the most critical period in the Nation's 
history. If it had not been adopted and the strong National Govern- 
ment established, it is almost certain that the various weak States strug- 
gling against each other would have drifted into anarchy and ruin. The 
objection which many citizens and some of the States had to ratifying 
the Constitution was that the National Government was given so much 
power that it might attempt to deprive the States and individuals of 
rights and privileges which they had long enjoyed. To remedy this dif- 
ficulty it was suggested that immediately upon its adoption such amend- 
ments should be made as would safeguard these rights, and therefore the 
first 10 amendments were ratified in 1791 as a sort of "bill of rights," 
securing freedom of religion, the right to trial by jury, and other safe- 
guards of personal liberty contained in them. 

Since then there have been added to the Constitution seven other 
amendments — one providing for the method of electing the President 
and Vice President as they are now elected; three after the Civil War 
abolishing slavery and making the negroes citizens and insuring them 
the right to vote. The last two amendments were passed within a com- 
paratively few years, one in 1909 authorizing Congress to lay and collect 
an income tax and the last one in 191 3 providing for the election of 
United States Senators by popular vote. 



student's textbook. 51 

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

In Congress, July 4. 1776, the Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve 
the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume, among 
the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature 
and of nature 's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires 
that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths id be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are 
endowed, by their Creator, with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, 
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That to secure these rights, governments are 
instituted among men. deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, 
that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the 
right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and institute new government, laying its 
foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall 
seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate 
that governments long established, shzuli not be changed for light and transient 
causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed 
to suffer, while evils are sufferable. than to right themselves by abolishing the forms 
to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, 
pursuing invariably the same objects, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute 
despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to pro- 
vide new guards for their future security-. Such has been the patient sufferance of 
these Colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their 
former systems of government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is 
a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the estab- 
lishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be sub- 
mitted to a candid world. 

He has refused to assent to laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public 
good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, 
unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained; and when so 
suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, 
unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature, a 
right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and 
distant from the depositor}.- of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing 
them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firm- 
ness his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, 
whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the 
people at large for their exercise; the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed hi 
all the dangers of invasions from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose 
obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encour- 
age their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his assent to lavr; re- 
establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices and the 
amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to 
harass our people, and eat out their substance. 



52 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of 
our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution 
and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legisla- 
tion: 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they 
should commit on the inhabitants of these States; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, estab- 
lishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render 
it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into 
these colonies; 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering funda- 
mentally the forms of our governments; 

For suspending our own legislatures and declaring themselves invested with power 
to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his protection, and 
waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed 
the lives of our people. 

He is, at this time, transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete 
the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of 
cruelty and perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally un- 
worthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear 
arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, 
or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring 
on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule 
of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most 
humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. 
A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, 
is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned 
them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable 
jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration 
and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, 
and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these 
usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, 
therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation and hold them, 
as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General 
Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of 
our intentions, do in the name, and by the authority of the good people of these Colo- 
nies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of right 
ought to ho., free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the 
British Crown, and that all political connexion between them and the State of Great 



student's textbook. 



53 



Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that as free and independent States, 
they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish com- 
merce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. 
And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine 
Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred 
honour. 

John Hancock. 
(signers.) 



Georgia. 

Button Gwinnett. 
Lyman Hall. 
Geo. Walton 



Virginia. 

George Wythe. 
Richard Henry Dee. 
Thos. Jefferson. 
Benjan. Harrison. 
Thos. Nelson, Jr. 
Francis Lightfoot Dee. 
Carter Braxton. 



Pennsylvania. 

Robt. Morris. 
Benjamin Rush. 
Benjn. Franklin. 
John Morton. 
Geo. Clymer. 
Jas. Smith. 
Geo. Taylor. 
James Wilson. 
Geo. Ross. 



Massachusetts Bay. 
Saml. Adams. 
John Adams. 
Robt. Treat Paine. 
Elbridge Gerry. 

North Carolina. 

Wm. Hooper. 
Joseph Hewes. 
John Penn. 

Delaware. 

Caesar Rodney. 
Geo. Read. 

New York. 

Wm. Floyd. 
Phil. Livingston. 
Fran's. Dewis. 
Dewis Morris. 

New Hampshire.) 

Josiah Bartlett. 
Wm. Whipple. 
Matthew Thornton. 



Connecticut. 

Roger Sherman. 

Saml. Huntington. 

Wm. Williams. 

Oliver Wolcott. 

South Carolina. 

Edward Rutledge. 

Thos. Heyward, junr. 

Thomas Dynch, junr. 

Arthur Middle ton. 
Maryland. 

Samuel Chase. 

Wm. Paca. 

Thos. Stone. 

Charles Carroll of Carrollton 
New Jersey. 

Richd. Stockton. 

Jno. Witherspoon. 

Fras. Hopkinson. 

John Hart. 

Abra. Clark. 

Rhode Island and Provi- 
dence, &c. 

Step. Hopkins. 

William Ellery. 



In Congress, 
January 18, 1777. 
Ordered: 

That an authenticated copy of the Declaration of Independency, with the names 
of the Members of Congress subscribing the same, be sent to each of the United States, 
and that they be desired to have the same put on record. 
By order of Congress. 

John Hancock, 

President. 
Attest: Chas. Thompson, Secy. 
A true copy. John Hancock, Presidt. 

THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH. 

CONGRESS. 

All legislative powers granted in the Constitution are vested in the 
Congress of the United States, which consists of a Senate and a House 
of Representatives. 

The House of Representatives is composed of citizens who are chosen 
to serve for two years. They are selected by direct vote of the people 



54 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. j 

represented by the regularly qualified voters of the several States. Each 
Representative must be at least 25 years old, a citizen of the United States 
seven years, and an inhabitant of that State in which he is chosen. The 
Representatives must not exceed one to 30,000 inhabitants, to be based 
on a national census compiled every 10 years, but each State shall have 
at least one Representative. On the basis of the census of 1910, Con- 
gress fixed the number of Representatives at 435, divided among the 48 
States according to population. There is an average of 210,504 people 
for each Representative. The House of Representatives chooses from 
among its number one to be its presiding officer, who is called the Speaker. 

The Representatives from the Territories of the United States are 
called " Delegates." They have the right to take part in the discussions 
of Congress, but have no vote. Alaska and Hawaii each have one Dele- 
gate. The Representatives from the insular possessions of the United 
States are designated Resident Commissioners; the Philippine Islands 
have two and Porto Rico has one. 

The Senate must consist of two Senators from each State, who are 
elected by direct vote of the people and for a term of six years each. As 
there are 48 States, the total number of Senators is 96. The dates for 
the election of Senators are so arranged that one-third of the member- 
ship is elected every two years. A Senator must be at least 30 years old, 
9 years a citizen, and an inhabitant of the State in which elected. The 
Vice President of the United States is the President of the Senate. 

Congress convenes or meets on the first Monday in December of each 
year unless it orders otherwise. It is within the power of the President 
to call a special session on extraordinary occasions. Each period of two 
years constitutes "a Congress," designated by the next higher numeral 
from the preceding period, as the First Congress, the Second Congress, 
etc., the period from March 4, 191 7, to March 4, 191 9, being the Sixty- 
fifth Congress. Each meeting during the period is called a session. There 
are two regular sessions which meet the first Monday in December of 
each year in the two-year period. These are called the long session and 
the short session. The last or short session must adjourn before March 4, 
as the terms of the Representatives and of one-third of the Senators elected 
to the new Congress begin on the 4th day of March of each second year. 
These sessions, together with any special sessions which may be called 
by the President for extraordinary reasons, are designated first session, 
second session, etc., of that Congress. 

All bills for raising revenues must originate in the House. The House 
has sole power of impeachment and the Senate sole power to try all 
impeachments, two-thirds of the members present being necessary to con- 
vict. (Study the Constitution for description of full powers of Congress.) 

Congress meets in the Capitol Building at Washington, D. C, the 
capital of the United States. The Senate chamber is 113 feet 3 inches 



student's textbook. 55 

in length by 80 feet 3 inches in width and 36 feet in height. The galleries 
will accommodate 1 ,000 persons. 

The Representatives' Hall is 139 feet in length by 93 feet in width and 
36 feet in height. The corner stone of the original building was laid Sep- 
tember 18, 1793, by President Washington and the corner stone of the 
extensions was laid July 4, 1851. The Supreme Court of the United 
States is also located in the building. 

The course which a bill takes through Congress is interesting. A bill 
that starts in the House of Representatives is prepared by a Representa- 
tive and placed in a basket near the Speaker's desk. This is all that is 
necessary to introduce the bill. Under the rules of the House of Repre- 
sentatives it is referred to the committee of the House having charge 
of the subject to which the bill relates. It is printed in the Government 
Printing Office in the form of a bill and given a number. The committee 
to which the bill relates is composed of a chairman and members from 
the different political parties represented in the House. These members 
consider the bill, and if they are favorable to its enactment report it to 
the House of Representatives and recommend its passage. After it 
passes the House it is sent to the Senate by the Clerk of the House of 
Representatives. 

When it is received in the Senate it is referred to the appropriate com- 
mittee of the Senate. This committee is composed of Senators repre- 
senting the political parties composing the Senate and a chairman. Upon 
being favorably considered by the committee members it is reported to 
the Senate with recommendation for its passage and enactment into law. 

When it has passed the Senate it is signed by the President of the 
Senate and reported back to the House of Representatives. Upon reach- 
ing the House of Representatives it is signed by the Speaker of the House 
and sent to the President at the White House for consideration. 

At this stage it is an act of Congress awaiting consideration by the 
President. If the President be fayorable to the legislation he may sign 
the bill, and it immediately becomes the law of the land. If he prefer 
not to sign the bill he may withhold his signature, and at the end of 10 
days from the date of its enactment by the Congress it will become a 
law. This is true of all acts of Congress unless Congress should adjourn 
before the 10-day period expires. In this case the acts not signed do 
not become law. 

If the President be unfavorable to the act of Congress, and should dis- 
approve it, he will state his reasons for disapproval and return it to the 
House in which the bill originated. When it is received there the objec- 
tions of the President are entered on the Journal of the proceedings of 
that House. 

The Congress of the United States is the largest legislating body in 
the world that expresses the direct voice of the people. Through this 
body the people express their desires for their own self-government in 



56 student's textbook. 

laws that are enacted for the direct benefit of the largest number of 
individual men and women to be found in any part of the world. Through 
this Congress the people express themselves in legislation whereby the 
government of the people is by the people and for the people in whatever 
form the majority may desire. 

THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH. 

THE PRESIDENT. 

The President of the United States is the responsible head of the Gov- 
ernment and stands as its representative to the whole world. He is the 
Chief Executive of this great Nation, and is the most important citizen 
of the country. He is called the Chief Executive because all the executive 
power of the Nation is given him by the Constitution. The Constitution 
also makes the President the Commander in Chief of the Army and 
Navy of the United States. 

He directs the administration of the laws of the Nation through the 
officers of the United States whom he appoints. These officers see that 
the laws are obeyed. They also see that the laws protect and benefit 
the people as they should. The Constitution requires the President to 
take care that the laws are faithfully executed. 

He also has the power given him by the Constitution to appoint 
ambassadors, ministers, and consuls to foreign countries, the judges of 
the Supreme Court, and of all other United States courts. He also has 
power to make treaties with foreign countries. The Senate must approve 
all of these appointments and treaties to make them effective. 

The Constitution requires the President to give information to Congress 
from time to time of the affairs of the Nation and to recommend laws 
for the good of the country. 

When the Congress convenes each year a committee from the two 
Houses notifies the President that they are ready for business. He then 
goes to Congress and reads his annual message about the Nation. He 
gives them special messages at other times during the session of the 
Congress. He calls Congress together at such special times as he deems 
necessary to consider extraordinary matters. 

He receives the ambassadors and ministers sent to America to repre- 
sent foreign nations. 

One of the most important powers which the President has is the right 
to veto any bill which Congress may pass. If he does not approve of 
the bill, he may send it back to Congress with his objections. This is 
the veto. A bill will not become a law unless two-thirds of the two 
Houses of Congress vote for it after the President has vetoed it. A 
vetoed bill that receives a two-thirds vote is said to have been "passed 
over the veto." 

He has power to grant pardons for offenses against the United StateSj 
except in cases of impeachment. 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 57 

The Constitution says that no person except a natural-born citizen 
shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be 
eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of 35 years 
and been 14 years a resident within the United States. 

The President is elected every four years, in November, and inaugu- 
rated on the following 4th of March. He holds his office for a term of 
four years and may then be elected again for another term. Woodrow 
Wilson became President of the United States March 4, 191 3; was 
reelected November 7, 191 6, and was inaugurated on Monday, March 5, 
1 91 7, owing to the fact that March 4 came on Sunday. 

THE CABINET. 

The Constitution refers to "the principal officer in each of the execu- 
tive departments." It does not refer to these officers as the Cabinet or 
Council of the President. 

The First Congress, at its first session, which was held in New York 
City 1789, established four executive departments. These departments 
were the Department of State, Department of War, Department of the 
Treasury, and the Department of Justice. A Secretary was authorized 
as the head of each department except the Department of Justice, at 
the head of which an Attorney General was placed. Five years later 
the Post Office Department was established, with a Postmaster General 
at its head. No more departments were established during the terms 
of President Washington. 

In 1798 the Department of the Navy was created, with a Secretary 
at its head. More than 50 years passed before another executive depart- 
ment was established, when Congress, in 1849, created the Department of 
the Interior. Forty years later, in 1889, the Department of Agriculture 
was established. February 14, 1903, Congress established the Depart- 
ment of Commerce and Labor, and on March 4, 191 3, the Department of 
Commerce and Labor was changed to the Department of Commerce, and 
the Department of Labor was created. 

The Secretary of State ranks first among the Cabinet officers, and by 
law succeeds to the Presidency in the event of disability of both the 
President and the Vice President. He has charge of the foreign affairs 
of the country. The Secretary of War and the Secretary of the Navy 
look after our national defenses. The Secretary of the Treasury has 
charge of all the financial affairs of the Government. The public lands, 
Indians, patents, and pensions are under the Secretary of the Interior. 
The Attorney General is the chief law officer of the Government. The 
Postmaster General supervises and directs the postmasters, post offices, 
and mails, and the postal-savings system of the entire country. The 
Secretary of Agriculture looks after the welfare of the farming and 
related industries, the national forests, and the weather reports. The 
Secretary of Commerce has charge of the inspection of steamboats, the 



58 student's textbook. 

lighthouses, the census, the coast and geodetic surveys, and of promoting 
the commerce, the shipping, and the fisheries of the United States. The 
Secretary of Labor directs the administration of the naturalization laws, 
the immigration laws, the investigations of the welfare of children, and 
child life, the collection of statistical and other information about labor, 
and acts as a mediator in the interest of industrial peace. He promotes 
and develops the welfare of wage earners, and advances their oppor- 
tunities for profitable employment, through the Bureau of Naturaliza- 
tion and the public schools, and in other ways. 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS OF THE GOVERNMENT. 

A great many of the activities of the departments of the United States 
Government — as will be seen by reading the articles which describe 
them — are related directly to helping the individual. This is because 
the individual citizen of the United States is also the sovereign power 
of government in the United States. The citizen makes the laws, and 
in doing this he makes laws that are for the betterment of his condition. 
In this country there is no organization of classes of peoples — all are 
equal in the right to the protection and benefits which the Nation guar- 
antees. No distinction is made in the law against those of foreign 
birth who reside in this country in favor of those who are citizens in 
the protection which the laws of this country afford. 

The Government at Washington collects taxes, enacts laws, builds 
post offices and other public buildings, improves the navigable water- 
ways of the Nation, places all of the lighthouses and lightships and other 
warning signals to all vessels that travel on water. 

Many of the activities of the Government are not included in this 
issue. All who desire information about them, or any of the branches 
of the Government referred to in this book, should write to the Bureau 
of Naturalization of the Department of Labor and full aid will be 
rendered. 

DEPARTMENT OF STATE. 

The Secretary of State is charged, under the direction of the President, 
with the duties appertaining to correspondence with the public ministers 
and the consuls of the United States and with the representatives of for- 
eign powers accredited to the United States, and to negotiations of 
whatever character relating to the foreign affairs of the United States. 
He is also the medium of correspondence between the President and the 
chief executives of the several States of the United States; the Great Seal 
of the United States is in his custody, and he countersigns and affixes 
the seal to all Executive proclamations, to various commissions, and to 
warrants for the extradition of fugitives from justice. He is first in rank 
among the members of the Cabinet. He is also the custodian of the trea- 
ties made with foreign States, and of the laws of the United States. He 
grants and issues passports, and exequaturs to foreign consuls in the 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 59 

United States are issued through his office. He publishes the laws and 
resolutions of Congress, amendments to the Constitution, and proclama- 
tions declaring the admission of new States into the Union. 

THE DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY. 

Through this department the national finances are managed. The 
revenues of the Government are collected and all moneys appropriated 
by Congress are drawn through this department. The control of the 
public buildings all over the United States, the coinage and printing of 
money, the health of the Nation, the life-saving stations, and the Coast 
Guard are under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury. He is 
also chairman of the Government banking system which is administered 
by the Federal Reserve Board and of the Federal Farm Loan Board. 
All the national banks are under the control of the Treasury Department 
and in the immediate charge of the Comptroller of the Treasury. 

MINT SERVICE;. 

Shortly after the organization of the Nation, the need of a national 
coinage was felt, and by the act of Congress of April 2, 1792, the first 
mint of the United States was established at Philadelphia. Subse- 
quently, as more territory was acquired and the gold and silver resources 
of the country were developed, other mints were established and Govern- 
ment assay offices opened to enable prospectors and miners more readily 
to dispose of their bullion, and also to protect them from avaricious 
private assayers who abounded in the mining regions in the early years 
of the mineral development of the country. 

Altogether, seven coinage mints were established in different parts 
of the country, of which two, located at Charlotte, N. C, and Dahlonega, 
Ga., have been discontinued entirely, while two others, at New Orleans, 
La., and Carson City, Nev., now operate only as assay offices, leaving in 
active coinage operation the mints at Philadelphia, Pa., San Francisco, 
Cal., and Denver, Colo. In addition to the assay offices operating at 
New Orleans and Carson City, the Government maintains other assay 
offices at Boise, Idaho, Deadwood, S. Dak., Helena, Mont., Salt Lake 
City, Utah, Seattle, Wash., and New York City, the last named being 
the largest of this class. 

All of these institutions are under the immediate supervision of the 
Director of the Mint, who, with the approval of the Secretary of the 
Treasury, prescribes the rules for the transaction of business, directs the 
coinage operations, authorizes expenditures, approves appointments, 
removals, and does all things necessary to a good administration of this 
work. 

The headquarters of the Mint Service are in the Treasury Department 
at Washington, D. C, known as the Bureau of the Mint. This consists 
of the office of the Director of the Mint, an assay laboratory for the 
purpose of testing the weight and fineness of the coins made at the 



60 student's textbook. 

several mints, and a clerical force which, under the Director of the Mint, 
reviews the accounts of the various institutions, prepares for publication, 
quarterly, an estimate of the value of the standard coins of foreign 
countries for customhouse and other public purposes, and works up 
the statistical data which go into the annual report of the Director of 
the Mint on the operations of the mint service for the fiscal year, in- 
cluding all statistics of the production of the precious metals in the 
United States and the world for the calendar year. 

The mints and assay offices have been established in localities suitable 
for the convenient acquisition of gold and silver by the Government for 
the purpose of coinage. Gold and silver bullion is received and paid 
for at its exact valuation (the price of gold remaining stationary while 
that of silver fluctuates) and the assay offices forward their receipts of 
the precious metals to the mints to be coined. Much of the metal is not 
suitable for immediate coinage, and refineries are maintained at the mints 
at San Francisco and Denver and the assay office at New York to purhy 
the metal. Such of the metal as may be needed for coinage is then 
alloyed with copper, the proportions being 9 parts of gold or silver to 1 
part of copper. This makes what is known as 900 fine or "standard" 
metal, which has been found most suitable for coins, the pure gold or 
silver being comparatively soft and subject to appreciable abrasion or 
wear. Minor coins are manufactured from nickel or bronze, the stocks 
of necessary metals being bought in open market as required. 

As the stock of gold in the country has accumulated far beyond the 
needs for the metal as a circulating medium, it has been found most 
convenient and economical after filling the yearly demands for new gold 
coin to melt the remainder of this precious metal into bars of uniform 
and convenient size. It is then stored in the vaults of the mints and 
held as a reserve against which gold certificates may be issued. 

New coin usually gets into circulation through the disbursing offices 
of the Treasury Department and banking institutions in exchange for 
the larger denominations of money. 

The mints manufacture not only all of the domestic coin, but also the 
coinage for the Philippine Islands, and, as their business permits, the 
coinage of adjacent countries. 

At the Philadelphia mint there is maintained a complete engraving 
and medal-making establishment, where are manufactured all dies used 
in the domestic and Philippine coinage, and also dies and medals of a 
national character. 

BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING. 

All of the paper money issued by the United States Government is 
printed at the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, as are all United States 
Government bonds, national-bank notes, Federal-reserve notes, internal- 
revenue stamps, postage stamps, and custom stamps. For this work all 



student's textbook. 6 1 

of the steel dies are engraved in this bureau. The work is done mostly 
by hand, but some fine machinery is used in engraving the scroll work 
upon the different forms of money, bonds, and certificates. The postage 
stamps for the entire United States and insular possessions of the country 
also are printed in the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. 

THE PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE. 

The Public Health Service is that branch of the Federal Government 
which has to do with national matters pertaining to the public health. 
Its functions relate primarily to the prevention of the introduction of 
disease from foreign countries, the prevention of the spread of disease 
from one State to another, and the giving of assistance to State health 
authorities when such assistance is needed. 

History. — The Public Health Service had its origin in 1798, when the 
Congress of the United States enacted a law to provide for the care of 
sick and disabled seamen. By this law there was created a medical 
service which, together with the collectors of customs, made provision 
for sick and injured sailors, taking care of them in hospitals and giving 
necessary medical and surgical attention. Since the organization of this 
service in the latter part of the eighteenth century, in addition to the 
care of seamen, there has been given to it the medical and surgical treat- 
ment of the employees of various branches of the Government. Also 
from time to time duties directly related to the preservation of the public 
health have been added. The service was originally known as "The 
Marine Hospital Service." By the year 1902 the public-health functions 
of the service had become the more important, and its name was changed 
to "The Public Health and Marine Hospital Service." By 191 2 the 
public-health functions had assumed still greater importance, and the 
name was changed to "The Public Health Service." 

Organization. — The Public Health Service is under the Secretary of 
the Treasury. The official in immediate charge is the Surgeon General. 
Under the Surgeon General the service consists of trained medical offi- 
cers, pharmacists, chemists, and others, all of whom are appointed from 
those who successfully pass competitive examinations! There are in the 
service 438 medical officers and 50 pharmacists, besides numerous men 
especially trained in various scientific branches related to public-health 
work. Most of those in the service make it their life work. 

Activities. — Through the Public Health Service the Federal Govern- 
ment cooperates with the various State and local health authorities. 
When there is an unusual or difficult sanitary problem in a locality the 
Surgeon General of the Public Health Service will, upon the request of 
the State health department having jurisdiction, send experts to assist 
the local health officers. Acting in this cooperative capacity the Public 
Health Service maintains a corps of experts who can be used wherever 
needed in time of emergency or of unusual conditions. At least once a 



62 student's textbook. 

year the representatives of the health departments of the States meet in 
conference with the representatives of the Public Health Service for the 
discussion of sanitary problems and of desirable methods of cooperation. 

The Public Health Service collects current information of the preva- 
lence and distribution of diseases and the occurrence of epidemics. It 
is responsible for the administration of the interstate quarantine laws 
and regulations and the prevention of the spread of disease from one 
State to another. 

The service investigates and studies the causes and means of spread 
of contagious and infectious diseases. It carries on researches of mat- 
ters pertaining to the public health and particularly of the problems 
peculiar to national health work and those which affect more than one 
State. 

It maintains the national quarantine for the prevention of the impor- 
tation of diseases from abroad. For this purpose it maintains what are 
known as quarantine stations. These are located along the seacoast, 
where vessels from foreign countries must stop to be inspected before 
entering United States ports. It also has officers stationed when neces- 
sary along the land borders of the United States to prevent the intro- 
duction of disease by people entering the country. The officers of the 
service examine, physically, arriving immigrants. This is done because 
of the law which requires that immigrants affected with certain diseases 
and physical deformities must be excluded from the country. The 
medical officers who make these examinations are stationed at the ports 
where immigrants enter. 

The Public Health Service regulates the manufacture and the sale in 
interstate commerce of vaccines, serums, antitoxins, and similar products. 
This is accomplished by requiring those who manufacture these product 
and sell them in interstate commerce to have a license issued by the 
Secretary of the Treasury. These licenses are issued only after the 
places where the vaccines and serums are produced have been inspected 
and the products themselves examined and found to be satisfactory. 
The licenses are good for one year, when reinspection and reexamination 
must be made. 

The service furnishes medical care and treatment to the seamen of the 
merchant marine and to persons employed in various branches of the 
Government service, among whom are the officers and enlisted men of 
the Coast Guard and the officers and crews of the vessels of the Light- 
house Establishment and of vessels of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. 
For this purpose it maintains hospitals in the various seaports and river 
ports. 

The Public Health Service collects information of the prevalence of 
dangerous diseases throughout the world and of the sanitary condition 
of ports in foreign countries. It collects similar information regarding 
localities in the United States. It keeps informed of the trend of sani- 



student's textbook. 63 

tary legislation and practices throughout the country by the collection 
and publication of the health laws and regulations adopted by the sev- 
eral States and cities. It also gives advice to State and city authorities 
regarding the better forms of health laws and regulations. 

THE UNITED STATES COAST GUARD. 

The United States Coast Guard was created by the act of January 28, 
1 91 5, and consists of the former Revenue-Cutter Service and the Life- 
Saving Service. The act constituted the Coast Guard a part of the mili- 
tary forces of the United States, which operates under the Treasury 
Department in time of peace and as a part of the Navy, subject to the 
orders of the Secretary of the Navy, in time of war or when the President 
so directs. 

In general, the duties of the Coast Guard may be classified as follows : 
Rendering assistance to vessels in distress and saving life and property; 
destruction or removal of wrecks, derelicts, and other floating dangers to 
navigation; extending medical aid to American vessels engaged in deep- 
sea fisheries; protection of the customs revenue; operating as a part of 
the Navy in time of war or when the President shall direct; enforcement 
of law and regulations governing anchorage of vessels in navigable waters ; 
enforcement of law relating to quarantine and neutrality; suppression of 
mutinies on merchant vessels ; enforcement of navigation and other laws 
governing merchant vessels and motor boats; enforcement of law to 
provide for safety of life on navigable waters during regattas and marine 
parades; protection of game and the seal and other fisheries in Alaska; 
and enforcement of sponge-fishing laws. 

THE DEPARTMENT OF WAR. 

The Secretary of War is the head of the War Department. He has 
charge of all matters relating to the national defense, including seacoast 
fortifications and highway bridges. 

GENERAL ARMY STAFF. 

The General Staff of the Army makes the plans for the national defense 
and for the mobilization of the military forces in time of war. It aids in 
bringing about a uniform action of different parts of the Army. The 
Chief of Staff has supervision of all troops of the line, under the direc- 
tion of the President, or of the Secretary of War under the direction of 
the President, and of matters relating to the command and discipline 
of the military establishment in its various branches. 

There are other military bureaus of the War Department under the 
control of the Adjutant General, by whom military orders and instruc- 
tions are issued; the Inspector General, through whom the United States 
Military Academy, military posts and the camps, general hospitals, 
armories and arsenals, and other military establishments are inspected; 



64 student's textbook. 

the Judge Advocate General, in charge of legal matters; the Quarter- 
master General, in charge of equipment and transportation of the Army; 
the Surgeon General, who advises upon all medical and sanitary affairs 
of the Army; the Chief of Engineers, by whom all military construction 
is supervised and conducted through the Corps of Engineers under his 
command; the Chief Signal Officer, under whose supervision are the 
military aeroplanes, radio stations, military telegraph lines and cables, 
and all other duties belonging to military signaling. The Chief of Ord- 
nance commands the Ordnance Department, under which every descrip- 
tion of artillery, including small firearms and all the munitions of war 
required for the forts of this country, the armies in the field, and the 
militia of the various States. The Militia Bureau has charge of organiz- 
ing, arming, instructing, equipping, disciplining, and all other matter 
relating to the National Guard. In the Bureau of Insular Affairs the 
civil government in the island possessions of the United States is directed. 

THE DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. 

The Attorney General is the head of this department and chief law 
officer of the Government. Through various assistants he represents the 
United States in matters involving legal questions, and in cases of especial 
gravity and importance he appears in the United States Supreme Court, 
gives advice on questions of law when they are required by the President 
or by the heads of the other Executive Departments, and provides special 
council for the United States whenever required by any department of 
the Government. 

The Solicitor General assists the Attorney General in the performance 
of his general duties, and when directed by the Attorney General may 
conduct and argue cases in which the United States is interested in any 
United States court and may appear to attend to interests of the United 
States in any State court or elsewhere. 

The Interior, State, Treasury, Commerce, and Labor Departments and 
the Internal Revenue, each have a solicitor, or chief law officer, who 
exercises his functions under the supervision and control of the Attorney 
General, advises the heads of the department on legal questions, and 
performs other duties. 

The Superintendent of Prisons has charge of all matters relating to 
United States prisons and prisoners including the United States prisoners' 
support in both State and Federal penitentiaries, in reform schools, and 
in county jails, and is president of the boards of parole for United States 
penitentiaries and for each State or county institution used for confine- 
ment of United States prisoners. 

The chief of the Division of Investigation has general supervision of 
examination of offices and records of Federal court officials and directs 
the work of examiners, etc., of the department whose compensation or 
expenses are paid from the appropriation " Detection and prosecution of 



student's textbook. 



65 



crimes," and who are employed for the purpose of collecting evidence or 
making investigations or examinations of any kind for this department 
or the officers thereof. 



POST OFFICE DEPARTMENT. 

The Postmaster General is the executive head of the Federal postal 
service, the management of all post offices, the carrying of mails on 
the trains, of the rural-delivery system, and letter carriers all over the 
United States, and the United States mails going to foreign countries. 
He has charge of the manufacture of all postage stamps and postal cards, 
the money-order and registered-mail divisions, the parcel post and the 
postal savings systems; and of the postmasters all over the United States. 

THE RAILWAY MAIL SERVICE. 

The Railway Mail Service of the Post Office Department has charge 
of the dispatch and distribution of mail matter in railway postal cars, 
terminal railway post offices and post offices; has jurisdiction over the 
moving of mails on railroad trains, and conducts the weighing of mails, 
on which the compensation to carriers is based. It employs a force of 
approximately 20,000 men, and supervises the transportation of mail 
by rail and steamboat on an average distance of approximately 1,700,000 
miles per day. 

DOMESTIC MAIL MATTER. 

Addressing mail matter. — Great care should be exercised in addressing 

and preparing matter for mailing. The name of the person addressed, 

street and number, or number of rural route, post office, and State should 

be written in full and plainly. The sender's name and address should 

be placed in the upper left corner of the envelope or wrapper of mail 

matter of all classes in order to secure its return, if desired, when unde- 

Hverable. 

{Sample.) 



AFTER 5 DAYS RETURN TO 

J. H. SHEPPARD, 

586 McGrory Street, 

New York. N. Y. 



(STAMP) 



42733°— 21- 



Mr. Iorwerth J. Roberts, 

372 Kalorama Avenue, 

Washington, D. C 

—5+6 



66 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

Classification and rates of postage. — Domestic mail matter is divided 
into four classes — namely, first, second, third, and fourth — and includes 
matter intended for local delivery or for transmission from one place to 
another within the United States (which includes Porto Rico and Hawaii), 
or to or from or between the United States and its possessions, consist- 
ing of the Philippine Islands, Guam, and the Canal Zone. Domestic 
rates and conditions also apply to mail matter addressed to the United 
States Postal Agency at Shanghai, China, to other places where the United 
States mail service is in operation, and to officers or members of the 
crews of United States war vessels, and with certain exceptions to matter 
sent to Canada, Cuba, Mexico, and the Republic of Panama. The 
domestic rate of 3 cents for each ounce applies also to letters, but not to 
other mail, addressed to England, Ireland, Newfoundland, Scotland, 
Wales, Bahamas, Barbados, British Guiana, British Honduras, Domin- 
ican Republic, Dutch West Indies, Leeward Islands, and New Zealand. 

Prepayment of postage on domestic matter at time of mailing by 
stamps affixed is required. Postmasters are not required to affix stamps 
to mail. 

Matter of a higher class inclosed with matter of a lower class subjects 
the whole to the higher rate. Persons knowingly concealing matter of 
a higher class in that of a lower class for the purpose of evading payment 
of the proper postage are liable to a fine of not more than $100. 

First-class matter. — First-class matter includes letters, postal cards, 
post cards (private mailing cards), and all matter wholly or partly in 
writing, whether sealed or unsealed, except manuscript copy accom- 
panying proof sheets or corrected proof sheets of the same, and except 
certain written additions authorized by the law to be placed on matter 
of other classes. Other matter sealed or otherwise closed against in- 
spection is also treated as of the first class. 

The rate of postage on first-class matter is 3 cents for each ounce or 
fraction of an ounce. Drop letters — that is, letters intended for delivery 
at or from the office where deposited — are subject to the rate of 2 cents 
an ounce or fraction thereof when mailed at letter-carrier post offices 
or at other offices where the addressees are served by rural, star-route, 
or other carrier. The rate of postage on postal cards is 2 cents each, 
the price for which they are sold. On private mailing cards or post 
cards the rate is 2 cents each. 

Second-class matter. — Second-class matter includes complete news- 
papers and complete periodicals (incomplete copies are subject to a 
higher rate) bearing notice of entry as second-class matter, and the rate 
of postage thereon when sent by the public — that is, by others than the 
publisher or a news agent — is 1 cent for each 4 ounces or fraction thereof 
on each separately addressed, unsealed copy or package of unaddressed 
copies. There is no limit of weight for second-class matter. 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 



67 



Third-class matter. — Third-class matter embraces circulars and other 
miscellaneous printed matter on paper, proof sheets, corrected proof 
sheets and manuscript copy accompanying same, and matter in point 
print or raised characters used by the blind. Books are included in 
fourth-class mail, as is also miscellaneous printed matter weighing more 
than 4 pounds. Reproductions or imitations of handwriting and type- 
writing obtained by means of a printing press, multigraph, or other 
mechanical process will be treated as third-class matter when mailed 
in the quantity and under the conditions which may be ascertained from 
the postmaster. 

The rate of postage on unsealed third-class matter is 1 cent for each 
2 ounces or fraction thereof on each separately addressed piece or pack- 
age. The limit of weight of third-class matter is 4 pounds. 

Parcel post — Fourth^class matter. — Fourth-class matter embraces that 
known as domestic parcel-post mail and includes merchandise, farm and 
factory products, seeds, plants, books (including catalogs), miscellaneous 
printed matter weighing more than 4 pounds, and all other mailable 
matter not included in the first, second, and third classes. 

The rates of postage on fourth-class or parcel-post matter — to be fully 
prepaid, unsealed — are as follows : 

(a) Parcels weighing 4 ounces or less, except books, seeds, and plants, 
1 cent for each ounce or fraction thereof, any distance. 

(b) Parcels weighing 8 ounces or less containing books, seeds, and 
plants r 1 cent for each 2 ounces or fraction thereof regardless of distance. 

(c) Parcels weighing more than 8 ounces containing books, seeds, and 
plants, miscellaneous printed matter weighing more than 4 pounds, and 
all other parcels of fourth-class matter weighing more than 4 ounces are 
chargeable according to distance or zone at the pound rates shown in 
the following table (except as provided in paragraph (d) below), a frac- 
tion of a pound being computed as a full pound : 





Local. 


Zones. 


Weight 

in 
pounds. 


First.— 

Up to 50 

miles. 


Second. — 

50 to 150 

miles. 


Third- 
ISO to 300 
miles. 


Fourth.— 

300 to 600 

miles. 


Fifth — 
600 to 
1,000 
miles. 


Sixth — 

1,000 to 

1,400 

miles. 


Seventh — 

1,400 to 

1,800 

miles. 


Eighth.— 
Over 
1,800 
miles. 




$0.05 
.06 
.06 
.07 
.07 
.08 
.08 
.09 
.09 
. 10 
. 10 
. 11 
. 11 
. 12 
. 12 


$0 « 


$0.05 
.06 
.07 
.08 
.09 
. 10 
. 11 
. 12 
•13 
.14 
•IS 

.16 
•17 
.18 
.19 


$0.06 
.08 
. 10 
. 12 
.14 
.16 
.18 
.20 
.22 
.24 
.26 
.28 
•30 
•32 
•34 


$0.07 
. 11 
•15 
.19 
•23 
.27 
•31 
•35 
•39 
•43 
•47 
•51 
•55 
•59 
.63 


$0.08 
.14 
. 20 
.28 
•32 
.38 
•44 
•SO 
•56 
.62 
.68 
•74 
.80 
.86 
.92 


$0.09 

•17 

•25 

•33 

.41 

•49 

•57 

•65 

•73 

.81 

.89 

•97 

1.05 

I- 13 

I. 21 


$0.11 

.21 
•31 
.41 
•51 
.61 
•71 
.81 
.91 
1. 01 
1. 11 
1. 21 
i- 31 
1. 41 
1. 51 








06 
07 
08 
09 
IO 
II 
12 
13 
14 

is 
16 
17 
18 
19 


1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


24 
36 

60 








6 


73 
84 




8 








11 

12 

13 

14 

15 


33 

44 
50 
68 
80 



68 



student's textbook. 





Local. 


Zones. 


Weight 

in 
pounds. 1 


First.— 

Up to 50 

miles. 


Second. — 

50 to 150 
miles. 


Third — 

150 to 300 

miles. 


Fourth — 

300 to 600 

miles. 


Fjfth.— 
600 to 
1,000 
miles. 


Sixth.— 

1,000 to 

1,400 

miles. 


Seventh— 

1,400 to 

1,800 

miles. 


Eighth.— 
Over 

1,800 
miles, 


16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 


$0.13 
•13 
.14 
.14 
•15 
•15 
.16 
.16 
•17 

• 17 
.18 
.18 

• 19 
.19 
.20 
.20 
.21 
.21 
.22 
. 22 
•23 
•23 
.24 
•24 
•25 
•25 
.26 
.26 

• 27 
.27 
.28 
.28 

• 29 
.29 
•3° 


$0.20 
.21 
.22 
•23 
.24 
•25 
.26 
.27 
.28 
•29 
•3° 
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1 The limit of weight has been increased to 70 pounds within the first, second, and third zones, and to 
50 pounds for all other zones. 

(d) Parcels subject to the pound rates, mailed for delivery within the 
first or second zone, are, when the distance bv the shortest regular mail 
route from the office of origin to the office of delivery is 300 miles or more, 
chargeable with postage at the rate of 6 cents for the first pound and 2 
cents for each additional pound, a fraction of a pound being computed 
as a full pound. 

(e) The eighth zone rate of 1 2 cents for each pound or fraction thereof 
is applicable between the United States and Alaska, the Hawaiian and 
Philippine Islands, between any two points in Alaska, and to Canada, 
Cuba, Mexico, and the Republic of Panama. 

The limit of weight of fourth-class matter is 70 pounds in the first, 
second, and third zones, and 50 pounds in all other zones. 

Limit of size. — Parcel post matter may not exceed 84 inches in length 
and girth combined. 

The name and address of sender must be placed on the outside of 
parcels of fourth-class matter preceded by the word "From." 

Additions to fourth-class mail. — It is permissible to place on fourth- 
class matter any marks, numbers, names, or letters, for purpose of 
description. An invoice showing the name and address of the sender 
and of the addressee, the names and quantities of the articles inclosed, 
and the price, style, etc., thereof may be inclosed. Inscriptions such as 



student's textbook. 69 

" Merry Christmas," " With Best Wishes," " Do not open until Christmas," 
or words to that effect, may be written on fourth-class matter. Books 
may bear simple dedications or inscriptions. 

Communications may be attached to parcels mailed at the third or 
fourth class rate of postage, provided the communications are inclosed 
in envelopes properly prepaid at the first-class rate and addressed to 
agree with the addresses on the parcels. 

Preparation of mail matter. — Second, third, and fourth class matter 
must be so wrapped that the contents may be examined easily by postal 
officials. 

Return of mail. — Letters and other mail of the first class prepaid one 
full rate, and reply double postal cards (but not single postal cards 
except when deposited for local delivery), when undeliverable, will be 
returned to the sender without additional postage, provided such mail 
bears the name and address of the sender. Matter of the second, third, 
and fourth classes may be returned to the sender only upon a new 
prepayment of postage. 

Forwarding of mail. — First-class matter upon being properly read- 
dressed may be forwarded from one post office to another without a new 
prepayment of postage. Other classes of matter may not be forwarded 
from one office to another unless additional postage is first prepaid. 

Insurance of fourth-class mail. — A person sending an unsealed parcel 
or package of goods through the mails to another person may be paid 
therefor if the contents are lost or broken before they reach the party to 
whom they are sent provided the parcel is insured. To insure a parcel the 
clerk at the post office must be asked to insure it. He should be told what 
is in the package, hew it is packed or wrapped, and how much money the 
goods inside are worth. The clerk will then charge 3 cents if the goods are 
not worth over $5 ; 5 cents if they are worth between $5 and $25 ; 10 cents 
if they are worth between $25 and $50; and 25 cents if they are worth 
between $50 and $100. This fee is to be paid besides the postage on the 
package and a receipt is given to show that the parcel is insured. If the 
parcel becomes lost, or the goods are broken, take the receipt to the post 
office and tell the facts. If you want to get a receipt from the person to 
whom you send the goods to show that he got them, tell the clerk at the 
post office or mark parcel "Return receipt desired." 

Collect-on-delivery service. — If a person wants to send goods to another 
person in the United States and have the goods paid for when they are 
delivered, he should not seal the parcel but merely tie it with string 
securely and present it to the post office and ask that it be sent collect 
on delivery. This will cost 10 cents besides the postage to send the 
parcel if the amount to be collected does not exceed $50, and 25 cents 
if the amount does not exceed $100. The value of the goods, if not 
more than $100, will be collected from the person to whom they are sent 
and the money returned by money order to the person who originally 



70 student's textbook. 

mailed the parcel. This money order may be cashed at the post office. 
The Post Office Department pays the value up to the amount for which 
the fee was paid of parcels sent collect on delivery if they are lost or 
broken and no extra charge is made for this feature. The person to 
whom the goods are being sent can not look at them before paying the 
charges for the goods. 

Registered mail. — Any kind of mail, except parcel post fourth-class 
matter, sent to people living in the United States or in foreign countries, 
may be registered for 10 cents, which must be paid in addition to the 
postage. A letter to be registered must be sealed and bear the name 
and address of the sender in the upper left-hand corner. Valuable 
papers, notes, and all matter of importance should be registered. The 
clerk in the post office gives the sender a receipt for any article registered, 
and if request is made a receipt will be obtained, without any further 
cost, to show that the letter reached the party to whom it was sent. 
Whenever a registered letter addressed to a person living in the United 
States is lost or rifled the Post Office Department pays the sender the 
value of the contents which can not be found, up to $50. If the letter 
is addressed to a person living in a foreign country, the value of the 
article lost is paid for up to $9.65. Only a few letters are lost when sent 
by registered mail, because a receipt is taken from each employee of the 
postal service that handles the letter, and he must be able to show to 
whom he gave it. 

UNITED STATES POSTAL SAVINGS SYSTEM. 

Purpose. — The United States Government accepts deposits of small 
amounts of money from anybody, pays interest on these savings, and 
guarantees to repay them on demand. 

Who may deposit. — Any person 10 years old or over may open a postal 
savings account in his or her own name by depositing one or more dollars 
in any post office authorized to accept postal savings deposits. No 
person may at the same time have more than one account, either at the 
same office or at different offices. The account of a married woman is 
free from any control or interference by her husband. Post-office em- 
ployees are forbidden to disclose to any person except the depositor the 
amount of any deposits. 

Amount that may be deposited. — A person may deposit any number of 
dollars and at any time until the balance to his credit amounts to $1,000, 
exclusive of accumulated interest. 

Opening accounts. — A person desiring to open a postal savings account 
should apply to the post office, where full instructions will be given. If 
for any good reason an intending depositor can not apply at the post 
office a representative may be sent who will be instructed how to pro- 
ceed. A person residing at a post office not authorized to accept postal 
savings deposits may open an account at a depository office by mail, 



student's textbook. 71 

through his local postmaster, who will give full instructions on applica- 
tion. 

Deposits. — After a postal savings account has been opened, deposits 
may be made either in person, by a representative, by money order, or 
by registered mail, if the money order service is not available. 

Postal savings deposits are acknowledged by postal savings certificates, 
which are made out in the name of the depositor and serve as receipts. 
These certificates are not salable or transferable. If certificates are lost, 
stolen, or destroyed new certificates may be issued. 

Withdrawals. — A depositor may at any time withdraw all or any part 
of his postal savings deposits', upon demand, from the post oflice where 
the deposits were made. He also may make withdrawals by mail or 
through a representative. 

Interest. — Postal savings certificates bear simple interest at the rate 
of 2 per cent a year. Interest begins on the first day of the month 
following the day on which the certificate is issued and becomes due and 
payable at the expiration of each full year from the day interest begins 
as long as the principal remains on deposit. No interest will be paid 
for a fraction of a year. 

Postal savings cards and stamps. — Amounts less than $1 may be saved 
by purchasing postal savings cards and postal savings stamps at 10 
cents each. A savings card with nine postal savings stamps affixed will 
be accepted as a deposit of $1 either in opening a postal savings account 
or in adding to an existing account, or it may be redeemed in cash. 

Postal savings bonds. — A depositor may exchange the whole or a part 
of his deposits for registered or coupon United States postal savings 
bonds, bearing 2% per cetft interest, issued in denominations of $20, 
$100, and $500. When bonds are issued in exchange for postal savings 
deposits the balance to the credit of the depositor is reduced accordingly, 
and he may make further deposits until his account reaches $1,000. 
A circular on postal savings bonds may be had at any depository post 
oflice. 

RURAL MAII, SERVICE. 

In the Post Office Department in Washington City there is a division 
whose special duty it is to look after the mail service in rural districts. 
This division is called the Division of Rural Mails, and is under the charge 
of the Fourth Assistant Postmaster General. The rural mail service was 
first officially suggested in 1891 by the Postmaster General. The first 
experimental rural delivery service was established on October 1, 1896, 
The first complete county rural service was established December 2o f 
1899, in Carroll County, Md. From that date the service grew very 
rapidly, and on June 30, 191 5, there were 43,877 rural routes, having a 
total length of 1,067,674 miles, costing the United States Government 
$50,000,000 a year, and carrying the mail practically to the doors of 
25,000,000 people. 



72 student's textbook. 

The principal purpose of rural delivery is to carry and collect mails on 
a fixed line of travel to and from people who would otherwise have to go 
a mile or more to a post office or to another route to receive and send their 
mail. From the begirrning it has proved to be a great blessing to such 
people, and it has saved the Government many millions of dollars by 
making possible the discontinuance of thousands of small post offices. 

In addition to delivering the mail to and collecting it from the boxes 
of their patrons, the rural carriers sell stamps and stamp supplies, 
deliver registered mail, receive mail for registration, accept applica- 
tions for money orders, and perform various other postal duties. In 
fact, a rural carrier's wagon might be said to be a traveling post office. 
Through the agency of this service the people residing in the remote 
localities are kept in close touch with current events as are the people 
living in the cities and towns, and the conditions under which residents 
of rural districts live have been rendered much pleasanter than they 
were before the development of the rural service. The salary of a rural 
carrier can not exceed $1,200 on an ordinary route, but if the route is 50 
or more miles long and the carrier has to use a motor vehicle he may be 
paid as much as $1,800 a year. 

A rural delivery route is generally established as the result of a petition 
sent to the Fourth Assistant Postmaster General by the people who 
wish to be served by the route. No service is authorized until after 
the matter has been carefully investigated by the Post Office Department. 
Proper application blanks and full information about applying for a 
rural route are furnished by the Government free of charge. 

DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY. 

The Secretary of the Navy has general supervision of the building, 
arming, equipping, and manning of all the vessels of war of the United 
States, under the direction of the President of the United States, who is 
Commander in Chief. The Navy Department is divided into various 
bureaus and offices. The Office of Naval Operations controls the Radio 
Service and other systems of communication, the Aeronautic Service, 
matters relating to mining harbors and waters of the rivers and seas, the 
Coast Guard when in time of war it is transferred from the Treasury 
Department, target practice, drills, and the training of the fleet for war. 
The Bureau of Navigation has charge of the Naval Academy and various 
other naval schools, the Naval Observatory, the Naval Reserve and 
Naval Militia, and of the Hydrographic Office, where all surveys made in 
foreign waters are recorded. The Bureau of Yards and Docks has charge 
of the designing and construction of all things relating to the navy yards 
and dry docks, radio towers, and other public works of the Navy. The 
Bureau of Ordnance is in charge of all matters relating to ammunition, 
war explosives, torpedoes, and the defensive armor of ships. The Bureau 
of Construction and Repair determines the strength and stability of all 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 73 

gllips of the Navy and has charge of many of the supplies that are needed 
for the ships, while in the Bureau of Steam Engineering the designing 
and building of the machinery of ships is cared for. All naval hospitals 
and the Hospital Corps, including the nurses, are under the charge of 
Bureau of Medicine and Surgery. Through the Bureau of Supplies and 
Accounts the vast stores of materials for the Navy, including clothing 
for the seamen, are bought and paid for, under the direction of the Pay- 
master General of the Navy. The Judge Advocate General of the Navy 
passes upon all legal matters of the Navy Department. The Marine 
Corps is a distinct branch of the Navy, under the direction of the Major 
General Commandant of the Marine Corps. The United States Marines 
are often referred to as the "Soldiers of the Sea" and are stationed on 
board the vessels of the Navy and in various shore stations. 

HYDRO GRAPHIC OFFICE. 

The Hydrographic Office of the Navy Department makes surveys of 
the waters of foreign coasts and harbors. From these surveys, and from 
information collected from various sources relating to these waters, it 
prepares navigators' charts and books of pilotage. The books of pilotage 
are directions by which ships sail in these foreign waters. These surveys 
are called marine surveys. It publishes notices to mariners every week. 
It also publishes charts of each ocean for steamships to use to guide 
them in sailing. It also furnishes lists of lighthouses in various foreign 
countries for the guidance of steam and sailing vessels. It issues manuals 
for navigation and mathematical tables for the use of the officers of the 
ships in finding their location at sea. These publications are distributed 
to the ships of the Navy and the vessels of other branches of the Govern- 
ment. They are sold to the ships of the merchant marine and to the 
public generally. 

It has five branch offices on the Great Lakes, located at Sault Ste. Marie, 
Mich., Duluth, Minn., Cleveland, Ohio, Chicago, 111., and Buffalo, N. Y. 
These are for the convenience of those navigating the Great Lakes. 
There are also six branch offices on the Atlantic seacoast, at Boston, 
Mass., New York, N. Y., Philadelphia, Pa., Baltimore, Md., Norfolk, Va., 
and Savannah, Ga. Two branch offices are to be found on the Gulf of 
Mexico, at New Orleans, La., and Galveston, Tex., and three on the 
Pacific coast, at San Francisco, Cal., Portland, Oreg., and Seattle, Wash. 
At these branch offices various reports from ships, giving marine and 
nautical information, are obtained. Advice and information to insure 
safety of the ships navigating the seas are also furnished at these places. 

UNITED STATES NAVAI, OBSERVATORY. 

The Naval Observatory furnishes the United States east of the Rocky 
Mountains with standard time at noon, seventy-fifth meridian time, 
each day, both by telegraph and radio, while the chronometer and time 



74 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

station at the navy yard, Mare Island, Cal., does the same for the country 
west of the Rockies. 

Through the Navy radio station, near Washington, the observatory 
furnishes vessels navigating the north Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of 
Mexico the standard time twice each day — at noon and 10 p. m. Persons 
having receiving wireless sets throughout the country are using these 
radio time signals in constantly increasing numbers, in preference to the 
telegraphic signals. 

Navigators, surveyors, and astronomers are kept supplied with the 
positions of the heavenly bodies in a form for practical use through the 
American Kphemeris and Nautical Almanac, and the American Nautical 
Almanac, a publication of the Nautical Almanac Office, which is a depart- 
ment of the Naval Observatory. 

In order to assist in furnishing data to keep the Almanac and Ephemeris 
up to the highest attainable standard of accuracy, continuous fundamental 
observations of the heavenly bodies are made at the observatory. 

When a mariner, a surveyor, or an astronomer wants to find his astro- 
nomical position on the globe, he does it by observations of the 
heavenly bodies, using the Nautical Almanac and a comparison of his 
local time with that of the observatory. 

The Naval Observatory also supervises the supplying of the vessels of 
the Navy and the naval air service with all the instruments used for navi- 
gating them. 

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. 

The Secretary of the Interior is at the head of this department. In 
this department the national parks, the Geological Survey, the Reclama- 
tion Service, the Indians, the Public Lands, the Government Railroad in 
Alaska, the Bureau of Mines, and the laws relating to patents for inven- 
tion and educational matters are administered. 

THE PATENT OFFICE. 

In the Patent Office more than a million patents have been granted and 
impetus has been given to invention and manufactures by the favorable 
laws of this country, which give great encouragement to inventors. They 
are protected in the enjoyment of the profits from the manufacture of 
their patented inventions for a term of 17 years. 

BUREAU OF PENSIONS. 

In this bureau about $150,000,000 annually are paid out by the United 
States Government to the soldiers or widows of soldiers who have engaged 
in the various wars against the United States. 

GENERAL LAND OFFICE. 

Through this branch of the Department of the Interior many millions of 
acres of land belonging to the United States Government have been given 
or sold at low prices to American citizens or aliens who have declared their 



student's textbook. 75 

Intention to become citizens of the United States. These lands are of the 
richest to be found on the face of the earth. Many families have been 
established on these farms and have lived to enjoy the fruits of their work. 
There are still many farm lands which belong to the Government and 
which may be bought at low prices by any who may desire to go to them 
and live upon them. 

The Commissioner of Indian Affairs has charge of the Indian tribes of 
the United States. 

Through the Geological Survey the United States Government searches 
for the mineral resources of the United States and gives great assistance 
to those who would develop these great sources of mineral wealth. 

BUREAU O? EDUCATION. 

The Bureau of Education collects statistics and general information 
showing the condition and progress of education, issues an annual report, 
a bulletin in several numbers annually, and miscellaneous publications. 
It has charge of the schools for the education of native children in Alaska, 
and supervises the reindeer industry in Alaska. The Bureau of Educa- 
tion also administers the endowment fund for the support of colleges for 
the benefit of agriculture and mechanic arts. 

THE RECLAMATION SERVICE. 

The Reclamation Service is the home making bureau in the Department 
of the Interior. It was organized on June 17, 1902, under the provisions 
of the act of Congress known as the national reclamation law. This 
law provides briefly that the proceeds from the sale of public lands in 
the 16 western arid States shall go into a fund known as the "reclamation 
fund," to be expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior , 
in the construction of irrigation works. 

The 16 States containing arid lands subject to reclamation are Arizona, 
California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New 
Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Wash- 
ington, and Wyoming. Texas was not included under the organic 
act, but has since been added to the list. 

In these western States there are approximately 450,000,000 acres of 
land belonging to the Government, and it is estimated that 40,000,000 
acres are capable of being irrigated. 

Remarkable progress has been made by the bureau in charge of this 
work, and at the present time 1,500,000 acres are under ditches, and 
crops are being produced yearly on more than a million acres. The 
average gross return per acre from these lands annually is about $25. 
More than 30,000 families have been established in homes of their own 
on these lands. Cities, towns, and villages have sprung up in the midst 
of these agricultural communities. Railroads have extended their 
branches, and a vast region which a few years ago was an uninhabited 
desert has been transformed into a prosperous farming country. 



76 student's textbook. 

The engineering works of the Reclamation Service rank with the 
greatest in the world, and include four of the highest masonry dams 
ever constructed. 

A summation of the work of the Reclamation Service to the beginning 
of July, 1 916, shows that it has dug 9,592 miles of canals and ditches and 
excavated 89 tunnels with an aggregate length of more than 25 miles. 
Dams of masonry, earth, crib and rock nil have been erected with a total 
volume of 12,200,000 cubic yards. These include the two highest dams 
in the world. The available reservoir capacity at this time is approxi- 
mately 6,500,000 acre-feet, or sufficient to cover the States of New Jersey 
and Delaware to a depth of 12 inches. The service has built 4,622 
bridges with a total length of 19 miles. Its culverts number 5,714 and 
are 36 miles long. There are now in operation 298 miles of pipe line and 
85 miles of flumes. The service has built 784 miles of wagon road, much 
of it in what was before inaccessible mountain regions, 82 miles of rail- 
road, 2,554 miles of telephone lines, 429 miles of power- transmission lines, 
and 1,068 buildings, such as power houses, pumping stations, offices, 
residences, barns, and storehouses. 

The projects now under way or completed embrace approximately 
3,000,000 acres of irrigable land, divided in about 60,000 farms of from 10 
to 1 60 acres each. During the year 1 9 1 5 water was available from Govern- 
ment ditches for 1,450,407 acres on 29,017 farms, and the Government 
was under contract to supply water to 1,088,003 acres. The excavations 
of rock and earth amount to 130,149,368 cubic yards. The Government 
has used 2,501,382 barrels of cement, and has manufactured 1,177,215 
barrels of cement and sand cement. The power developed amounts to 
approximately 35,000 horsepower. 

The net investment of the service to date is approximately 
$100,000,000. 

UNITED STATES BUREAU OP MINES. 

The United States Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C, is one of the 
bureaus under the Department of the Interior. One of the main pur- 
poses of this bureau is to teach safety to the more than a million men 
who work in the mines and to another million men who are in some 
way connected with mining. 

Mining in the United States is growing very fast and each year requires 
several thousand new men. Many of these new men are foreign-born 
and do not understand mining. Most of them have worked on the 
farms in their native countries and have never been inside of a mine. 
These men do not know the dangers that are found in mines, and it often 
happens that they do something which causes accidents, perhaps killing 
not only themselves but also miners who are experienced. 

The Bureau of Mines sends out to the men in the mines little pam- 
phlets called "Miners' Circulars," which tell of the dangers in the mines 
and how a man should act to keep away from harm. These circulars 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 77 

are free and are given to every man who asks for them. For the benefit 
of the foreign-born miners, each little pamphlet hereafter will be printed 
in a foreign language with the English on the same page, so that the 
miner will be able to learn English at the same time he learns the safety 
lessons. So far it has been decided to publish these papers in Italian, 
Polish, and Slovak. 

Since the bureau started sending out these little papers showing the 
dangers in mines the deaths in the mines have become fewer. The 
mining companies themselves have also given the miners pamphlets 
showing the dangers and have worked earnestly with the Bureau of 
Mines to make the miner's job safer. 

The Bureau of Mines does not make laws for the mines. It tells what 
is safe for the miner to do and the miner learns by reading the pam- 
phlets. The rules for mines are made by the States in which the mines 
are located. Each State has its own mining laws and a number of 
mine inspectors who see that the laws for safety are obeyed. These 
State inspectors know what the Bureau of Mines is doing for the miners 
and encourage its work among the men. They know that it takes 
their efforts and the efforts of the Bureau of Mines, the owners of the 
mines, and the miners themselves to bring about safety in the mines. 
The result is that a great many of the safety ideas of the Bureau of 
Mines have become a part of the State law and a better understanding 
among the miners as to what is safety. 

When the new miner learns more about his work, the Bureau of Mines 
has some papers which tell him more difficult things of mining. The 
miner studies these papers and soon he is enabled to get a better job 
in the mines. In that way the miner becomes more valuable to his 
employer and gets more money for his work. The Bureau of Mines 
does a great many more things than this for the mining industry. It 
makes experiments and gets out papers covering these experiments. 
Papers of this sort are of interest to engineers and operators. The 
bureau tries to show the people the best methods of mining and the best 
way of using the minerals after they are mined. In this way it tries to 
avoid the waste which comes with bad mining. It also means that if 
the waste is stopped the mines are more prosperous and the workmen 
are employed for a longer time. This finally means greater prosperity 
for the country. 

The national parks throughout the United States are cared for and 
protected from destruction and are the great public playgrounds for the 
American people, their beauties attracting many thousands of tourists 
annually. 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

Practically everything that it is possible to do to develop the agri- 
culture of the United States is being done in this department. There are 
many bureaus in this department that study all of the needs of the 



78 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

farmer, including farm management, animals, plants, the soil of the farm, 
insects destructive to vegetation and methods of destroying them, wild 
birds and animals that are harmful or helpful to farmers, the forests, and 
the farming lands, the condition of the weather and its effect upon the 
farms, information regarding new discoveries of value to farming, chem- 
ical analyses of farm products, the development of scientific studies of 
farming in experiment stations in every part of the United States, 
including Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the small island of Guam in 
the Pacific Ocean; the establishment and betterment of public roads and 
the best methods of constructing them. In addition to all this, the 
best methods of marketing the products of the farm are carefully 
worked out. 

THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU. 

Man early began to take notice of the weather, as heat and cold, rain 
and sunshine directly affected his comfort and health. For a long time, 
however, he could not compare the weather of one day or month or 
year with that of another, as he had no means of measuring exactly the 
degree of heat or the amount of rainfall, and could keep no records 
except in his memory. After a time he invented a thermometer for 
measuring heat, a barometer for measuring the pressure of the air, an 
anemometer for measuring the velocity of the wind, a rain gauge for 
measuring the amount of rainfall, and other instruments of a like nature. 

From a study of many years' records of these instruments he discovered 
certain laws that govern the changes in the weather and was able to 
foretell the kinds of weather that followed certain other kinds. This 
knowledge was very important to him, and when the telegraph was 
invented men were able to send out information of the coming weather 
from 24 to 48 hours in advance. For the effective collection and dis- 
tribution of this information Weather Bureaus were organized in nearly 
every civilized country. The United States Weather Bureau was 
established by an act passed by the National Congress on February 9, 
1870, and provided for taking weather observations throughout the 
country and for giving notice by telegraph and signals of the approach 
of storms, so that sailors and ship owners might be warned and take 
measures to protect their lives and property. Later the benefits of the 
bureau were extended to commercial and agricultural interests, and 
now the weather forecasts and the warnings of severe and injurious 
conditions sent out by the bureau benefit nearly every kind of business 
enterprise and add to the health and comfort of all the people. 

Weather forecasts for the United States are based on observations of 
local weather conditions at over 200 regular Weather Bureau observing 
stations throughout the United States and the West Indies, taken twice 
a day all at the same moment of time. Each of these stations is oper- 
ated by one or more trained observers and is equipped with the necessary 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 79 

instruments for observing and recording the various phases of the 
weather. These observations are telegraphed twice daily, immediately 
after being taken, to the central office at Washington, D. C, and to 
other forecast centers where they are entered on maps, so that they may 
be studied by experts trained to forecast the weather for the coming 
day or two. The observations, as telegraphed, contains a record of the 
degree of temperature at the time, the pressure of the air, the amount 
of rain or snow since the last observation, the direction and velocity of 
the wind, the state of the weather — whether fair, cloudy, raining, etc. — 
and the highest and lowest temperatures since the last observation. 
By studying these reports and comparing them with the ones taken 
before, the forecaster is able to trace the paths of storms across the 
country and forecast very closely their future movements and the weather 
conditions that are likely to attend them. 

As soon as the forecasts are completed, which is usually within two 
hours after the observations are taken, they are sent out by telegraph, 
telephone, and mail to places all over the country. Nearly 90,000 
addressees receive the forecasts by mail before 6 p. m. on the day of 
issue, and within an hour after being issued hundreds of telephone 
companies have received and telephoned them to their subscribers, over 
5,500,000 people being served daily by this means. This distribution 
is in addition to that effected through the daily newspapers, nearly 
every one of which publishes the forecasts in some prominent place for 
the benefit of its readers. 

The invention of wireless telegraphy has made it possible for observa- 
tions to be taken on ships at sea and sent to receiving stations on the land 
and thence to the central observatory for study and use in forecasting. 
This service frequently enables the forecaster to have knowledge and 
give warning in advance of those severe storms and hurricanes that 
sometimes develop over the ocean in the tropical regions and that, 
before wireless telegraphy was known, were liable to approach our coasts 
without warning, causing great destruction of life and property. 

In some of the western States where very little rain falls during the 
summer the people have to depend on irrigation to raise their crops and 
it is useful for them to know how much water they can rely on for the 
coming season. As this water comes largely from the neighboring 
mountains, the bureau has established several hundred stations in the 
mountain regions to measure the amount of rain and snow that fall 
during the winter, and by this means it is able to give the people some 
idea of the amount of water they may expect. 

In order that it may have knowledge of the climate or average weather 
that prevails over the various portions of the United States the Bureau 
has established a great number of substations throughout the country — 
over 4,500 in all, or one in nearly every county. Observations of tempera- 
ture and rainfall are taken daily at each of these stations by persons 



8c STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

who on account of their interest in science do this work without pay. 
The records of these observations are sent every month to one of the 
Weather Bureau stations in the State, known as the Section Center, 
and there published as a part of the climatological record of the State. 

By far the most valuable warnings issued by the bureau are those 
sent to sailors and shipowners announcing the expected approach of 
dangerous storms and hurricanes, thus enabling them to safeguard the 
lives and property intrusted to their care. By means of flags of different 
colors hoisted by day and white and red lanterns by night, these warnings 
are displayed in every port and harbor of any considerable importance 
along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts, and the shores of the Great 
Lakes — over 300 in all — and the forecasters have become so expert in 
predicting these storms that scarcely one of marked violence has occurred 
for years for which warnings had not been sent out from 12 to 24 hours 
in advance, with the result that hundreds of lives and millions of dollars' 
worth of property have been saved from destruction. 

The following are some of the many methods employed in the protec- 
tion of property and the promotion of the health and comfort of the 
people as a result of weather forecasts and warnings issued by the 
Bureau : 

The railway companies ice their cars in summer and heat them in 
winter to protect perishable produce from extremely high and low tem- 
peratures. Shippers delay sending off perishable goods until the hot or 
cold spells have passed. When cold waves are predicted, heating and 
lighting plants prepare to meet the increased demands for service that is 
sure to follow. Water pipes and all fixtures liable to be injured by 
freezing are protected. Coal dealers lay in larger stocks. Charitable 
organizations prepare to meet the increased demands for food and 
clothing by the poor. In the farming and truck growing districts in the 
spring the young and tender vegetables are protected by various methods. 
In the fall cranberry bogs are flooded until the danger is over. In the 
sugar regions the cane is cut and put in piles to prevent it freezing. 
Crops of immense value have been saved by this means in the sugar dis- 
tricts of Louisiana. In California where raisins are grown, the crop, 
while drying, is greatly injured if rain falls on it, and the rain forecasts 
enable the producers to protect the fruit by stacking and covering the 
trays. All kinds of crops that would be injured by rain are cut on the 
days that fair weather is forecast. Certain kinds of building material, 
such as lime, cement, etc., are covered up when rain is predicted. When 
heavy snow is forecast, railroads and street railway companies get their 
men and tools ready to remove it from the tracks as soon as possible 
after it stops. Heavy rains often make floods in the rivers, sometimes 
causing vast injury. Forecasts of these are of immense value to people 
along the banks, and property of vast amount, and often lives, have 
been saved as a result of the warnings. 



student's textbook. 8 1 

BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. 

The Bureau of Animal Industry carries on work relating to live stock. 
it conducts the Government meat inspection, which covers about 60 per 
cent of the meat produced in the country. This bureau maintains a 
system of inspection and quarantine of imported animals to prevent the 
bringing in of animal diseases from other countries, and also inspects 
animals for export from the United States to other countries. It studies 
the breeding and feeding of farm animals such as cattle, horses, hogs, 
sheep, and goats, as well as poultry, and gives information to aid people 
in raising live stock and poultry and in the production of eggs. It 
promotes the formation of clubs of boys and girls to raise pigs and 
chickens. It gives information about dairy farming, the care and 
improvement of dairy cattle, and the production and care of milk, 
butter, and cheese. It gives information and furnishes plans for the 
building of barns, silos, milk houses, etc. It also studies diseases of 
animals, and gives information and advice as to the nature of such 
diseases and how to prevent and treat them. It has undertaken system- 
atically to eradicate some of the diseases. Publications giving infor- 
mation on these various subjects will be sent without charge. 

FOREST SERVICE. 

The forests of this country are of great value. They supply material 
for lumbering, which is our third greatest industry. They bring large 
money returns and give employment to about 1,500,000 people. There 
are also many smaller industries which depend directly or indirectly 
upon the forest. 

The forests protect and regulate the flow of streams necessary for 
irrigation, power development, navigation, and domestic water supply. 
They lessen floods, prevent the soil from washing away, afford places 
for recreation by making these places more healthful and attractive. 
The forests bestow various other benefits upon the people of the country. 

In spite of these good things which the forest gives us, we have allowed 
them to be destroyed recklessly in the past. Vast wooded areas have 
been laid waste by fire, which has in many cases destroyed the land as 
well as the timber and left the country desolate. Besides, we have been 
wasting twice as much wood as we have used, and have been cutting 
three times as much timber a year as annually grows. Our timbered 
area is growing smaller and the population of the country and the need 
of timber are steadily growing larger. This means that if the loss of 
our forests continues it will not be many years before we will not have 
enough wood to meet home demand, and, further, that floods and soil 
erosion and other evils will greatly increase. 

About one-fifth of the wooded area of the United States belongs to 
the Federal Government. During the past 20 years most of this has 
42783°— 21 6 



82 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

been set aside in national forests. These national forests — which are 
not the same as the national parks — are under the jurisdiction of the 
Forest Service of the United States Department of Agriculture. 

On July i, 1 91 6, there were 168 national forest areas, embracing an 
area of more than 157,500,000 acres. These national forests occupy for 
the most part rough mountain lands which are not suited to farming, 
and most of them are in the far western States. As far as possible, they 
are protected from fire, insect damage, and other evils, and between 
15,000 and 30,000 young trees are planted on treeless mountain sides 
within these areas every year, in order that the damage done in the past 
by fires and wasteful logging may be overcome. 

These national forests are managed and protected in such a way that 
the timber, the grazing lands, the water, and all of the other resources 
they contain are saved from waste, misuse, and abuse. All of the 
resources in these forests are for private individual use, at a very reason- 
able charge for commercial use, and for no charge at all for pleasure, 
sight-seeing, and recreational purposes. Where land more valuable for 
agriculture than for other purposes is found, it is not kept as a national 
forest, but may be entered by homesteaders for farms at the regular 
price of public lands to farmers. When wood is wanted for domestic 
use by local residents it is given away or sold at the cost of cutting it. 
Ripe timber is sold at a fair price to the highest bidder, and the cutting 
must be done under scientific regulation, to avoid waste and insure 
future growth. In a single year 604,920,000 board feet of timber have 
been cut from these national forests. Of this amount 119,483,000 board 
feet were cut and used by 42,055 individuals without charge. There 
were also 10,840 board feet of small quantities of wood. These privi- 
leges were given to farmers, homesteaders, ranchers, miners, those own- 
ing small sawmills, and others in need of a small amount of timber. 

The Forest Service carries on investigations for the purpose of improv 
ing stock ranges on the national forests. About 10,000,000 head of live 
stock owned by citizens graze upon ranges in the national forests at a 
small cost per head. Mineral deposits found in these forests may be 
developed by mining as freely as on any other public Government land. 
The development of water power along streams in national forests is 
allowed for recreational use by the public, and in every possible way 
they are made to serve public interest. Bridges, trails, roads, telephone 
lines, and other improvements are constructed in them. Almost one- 
half of the revenue from this source is used for schools and roads in the 
States where the national forests are located. The rest of this money 
goes into the National Treasury. 

The Forest Service also conducts special investigations relating to the 
growth and management of forests and the uses that may be made of 
them. One of its aims is to see that trees of the forest are put to their 



student's textbook. 83 

best use with the least waste in the manufacture of all kinds of lumber 
and all kinds of articles made of wood. 

Nowhere in the entire world does the Government of the country give 
such free use and liberal treatment of its national resources to its citizens. 
Our Government treats the naturalized citizen as kindly as it treats the 
native citizen. 

The Forest Service tries to keep the public informed of the work 
which it is doing and of the important facts concerning forests and their 
use and protection which it finds out by its investigations. Free publi- 
cations are issued to applicants. Traveling exhibits of wood, charts, 
maps, photographs, and lantern slides with lecture outlines to accom- 
pany them, are loaned to schools, libraries, clubs, and other educational 
agencies. 

BUREAU OF SOILS. 

The organization of the Bureau of Soils comprises a field force engaged 
in surveying and mapping the soils of the country, a laboratory force 
employed in chemical and physical investigations of soils and fertilizers, 
and an office force carrying on the administrative work in Washington 
City. 

The soil survey is the principal activity of this office. Already 
575,000,000 acres have been surveyed and reports and maps embodying 
the results of the work published. Ordinarily a survey covers a single 
county, and the work is distributed so that surveys have been made in 
every one of the States. 

Soil mapping and soil classification are primarily scientific, the results 
being fundamental and designed to furnish a sound basis for the investi- 
gations and experiments of agricultural workers connected with the 
Department of Agriculture, the State experiment stations, and other 
State organizations. But the reports and maps have an immediate 
practical value, as they furnish information concerning the character 
and value of land, the climate, and the type of agriculture in different 
parts of the country. 

In the laboratories of the bureau investigations are made of the mineral 
characteristics of soils, of their relation to internal moisture and air 
movements, their tendency to erode, and other fundamental questions. 
The fertilizer investigations, while primarily scientific, include the search 
for natural supplies of potash, the devising and perfecting of processes of 
manufacture of fertilizers, and a study of the present supplies, their 
value, and permanency. 

The field operations of the Bureau of Soils are published in an annual 
report showing the results of the work during the entire year. Advance 
sheets, showing the work by counties, are published from time to time 
as the surveys are completed. Scientific bulletins are published, also^ 
from time to time. 



84 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY. 

Injurious insects cause a money loss to the United States of something 
over a billion dollars a year. They damage all kinds of agricultural 
crops; they injure live stock; they are destructive to stored grains and 
many other stored products; they damage forests; they injure wooden 
structures and implements; and they spread diseases among human 
beings. It is the work of the Bureau of Entomology of the United States 
Department of Agriculture to study these injurious insects carefully, in 
the hope of finding cheap and effective means of fighting them. 

To do this the bureau has a large organization in Washington City and 
employs some hundreds of men who are experts in the study of insect 
life and has established more than ioo field laboratories in different parts 
of the country where certain kinds of injurious insects can be studied at 
the center of their greatest abundance and where they are doing the 
worst damage. 

The several sections of the bureau deal with the insects affecting the 
health of man, such as flies, mosquitoes, bedbugs, and other household 
pests; those which damage fruits and fruit trees, such as scale insects, 
the codling moth (which makes wormy apples) , the borers in the trunk 
and those which feed upon the leaves, insects affecting cotton, tobacco, 
sugar cane, rice, and other southern field crops; those affecting the health 
of animals, including the cattle tick, the botflies, and the gadflies; 
insects affecting the grain and forage crops, such as grasshoppers, the 
army worm, the Hessian fly, and the alfalfa weevil; insects affecting 
forests and forest products, such as the bark beetles, which play such 
havoc in western pine forests; insects affecting vegetable and garden 
crops, like the Colorado potato beetle and the army of different species 
which bore into the stems and eat the leaves of nearly all such plants ; 
insects injurious to stored grains, such as the different grain weevils ; the 
different phases of handling and raising honeybees and studying their 
diseases; and another large section which tries to prevent the spread 
and reduce the numbers of the gypsy moth and the brown- tail moth, 
which for a number of years have caused extensive damage over large 
areas in New England States by feeding on the leaves of trees. 

In the course of this work many tests are made with different liquids, 
powders, and other preparations to destroy insect life, and with machin- 
ery used in the application of these preparations. The bureau also 
introduces into the United States from other countries beneficial insects, 
such as the Calasoma beetle, which has been brought over from Europe 
to feed upon the caterpillar of the gypsy and brown-tail moths in New 
England, and the Australian ladybird beetle, which was brought over 
some years ago from Australia to fight the fluted scale of the orange and 
lemon groves of California. 

Many pamphlets concerning these insects and including methods of 
destruction and control are published by the Bureau of Entomology for 
free distribution. 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 85 

THE BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

The work of the Bureau of Biological Survey of the United States 
Department of Agriculture is distributed in four divisions. 

1. The division of economic relations studies birds and mammals in 
relation to agriculture, investigates their food habits, recommends meas- 
ures for the protection of beneficial species, conducts experiments in fur- 
farming, devises methods for destroying harmful animals, and supervises 
this work on the National Forests and public lands in the West in destroy- 
ing prairie dogs, pocket gophers, wolves, and coyotes. 

2. The geographic distribution division makes biological surveys and 
investigates the distribution of animals and plants, maps the natural life 
zones, studies migration of birds, and makes an annual bird census. 

3. The division of game preservation supervises the enforcement of 
the Federal laws regulating interstate commerce in game and plumage 
and the law protecting birds on national bird reservations, regulates the 
importation of foreign birds and mammals, and issues permits for the 
collection and shipment from Alaska of specimens for scientific purposes 
and the capture and shipment of game for exhibition. It also main- 
tains four big-game preserves and 68 national bird reservations, distrib- 
uted in 23 States and Territories. 

4. The division of migratory bird law is in charge of the Federal law 
protecting migratory birds, prepares the regulations, and supervises the 
work of the field inspectors and wardens appointed to carry out the pro- 
visions of the act. 

BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY. 

This bureau is charged with the enforcement of the Federal food and 
drugs act. Its inspectors collect samples of foods and drugs that are 
shipped from one State to another, or that are manufactured or sold 
within the District of Columbia or a Territory, or that are exported to or 
imported from other countries. The samples of foods and drugs col- 
lected by the inspectors are examined by chemists and if found to be 
adulterated or misbranded under the law the facts are reported to the 
solicitor of the department and proper legal action is taken. The Bureau 
of Chemistry has nothing to do with foods and drugs that are manu- 
factured or produced in the same State in which they are consumed. 

This bureau also makes chemical studies of the composition of crops. 
It develops methods for using waste products of the farm. It improves 
methods for preserving fruit juices and for packing, shipping, and handling 
poultry, eggs, fish, and other foodstuffs. It develops better ways to 
manufacture cane and maple sirup. It makes studies to learn what sub- 
stances in foods may be harmful to health. It makes chemical analyses 
and investigations for the various executive departments of the Gov- 
ernment. 

Other branches of the Department of Agriculture equally important 
in their various activities are devoted to considering systems of road 



86 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

building and management, in building experimental roads, and in teach- 
ing engineers the latest and best developments of the science of road 
building in various parts of the United States. 

THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. 

The Department of Commerce is divided into eight bureaus. Each of 
these bureaus has a chief, all of whom are, however, under the control of 
the head of the department, who is called the Secretary of Commerce. 
Through these branches or bureaus the Secretary promotes, fosters, and 
developes the foreign and domestic commerce, the mining, manufactur- 
ing, shipping, and fishery industries, and the transportation facilities of 
the United States. Some of these activities of the Department of Com- 
merce are referred to in this book. 

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE. 

The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce is organized primarily 
to collect commercial information in foreign countries and to distribute it 
to American manufacturers and exporters. Its work partakes of the 
nature of a commercial survey. For collecting information it now relies 
mainly upon three agencies — its commercial attaches, special agents, and 
the American consuls. 

The commercial attaches are highly qualified business diplomats who 
are capable not only of reporting the minor incidents of commercial im- 
portance but of following up the bigger developments, and of detecting 
and understanding the undercurrents of the business and commercial 
life of the districts in foreign countries to which they are assigned. 

The special agent is a specialist in some one line of manufacture, and 
may be sent to every corner of the earth to study the markets for his 
particular line of goods. There are now about 20 such special agents in 
the employ of the bureau. There is a separate office in New York City 
where the work is brought personally to the attention of manufacturers 
and exporters. 

The Consular Service of the State Department has long been one of the 
chief aids of the bureau in gathering this information on commercial 
conditions in the countries where they represent the United States. 
There are 230 consuls, and they give part of their time to this work for 
the bureau, and in past years the publications of the bureau were based 
almost entirely upon the work of the American consuls. 

In connection with this work of collecting commercial information the 
bureau has found that it is just as important to distribute quickly the 
information obtained as it is secure it. To get into closer touch with 
the manufacturers and exporters it has established eight district offices 
and eight cooperative offices. The district offices are in New York, 
Boston, Atlanta, New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago, San Francisco, and 
Seattle, and the cooperative offices are in Cleveland, Los Angeles, Phila- 



student's textbook. 87 

delphia, Chattanooga, Portland (Oreg.), and Dayton, with two such 
offices in Cincinnati. 

In distributing this information, the bureau relies chiefly upon the 
printed page. A daily paper, known as Commerce Reports, has long 
served to bring the reports from the consuls and special agents to the 
attention of the business public. Important news, much of it cabled, is 
now published in this daily paper within a few hours after its receipt in 
Washington. Bach daily issue carries a page or two of what are called 
foreign trade opportunities. These opportunities are sent in by consuls, 
agents, and attaches, and are outlined in the daily and numbered. Any 
American business concern that wishes full details about any of these 
opportunities may get them by writing to the bureau. Millions of dollars 
worth of American goods have been sold through these pages. 

THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS. 

At the National Bureau of Standards are kept the national standards 
of measure. All measures of length, capacity, area, weight, electricity, 
light, heat, pressure, density, time, and many others are based on the 
standards of this bureau. Scientific researches of the most varied kinds 
are required to improve these standards and the methods of measurement 
involved in their use. 

Modern standards include also standards of quality for materials, 
standards of performance for machines and appliances, standards of prac- 
tice for public utilities and industrial engineering. The work of estab- 
lishing such standards upon a scientific basis is an important part of the 
function of the Bureau of Standards. 

The bureau's activities include researches and testing in the fields of 
heat, light, electricity, trade weights and measures, metallurgy, chemistry, 
structural materials, and mechanical appliances, and technical aspects 
of fire resistance, public utilities, refrigeration and similar engineering 
subjects. Within its field the bureau is the scientific adviser of the 
Government, a clearing house of scientific information for the industries 
and a research laboratory in the field of industrial technology. 

BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 

The Bureau of Fisheries is a branch of the Department of Commerce, 
and its chief object is to maintain and increase the supply of edible 
fishes in the waters of the United States, both along the coasts and in 
the rivers, lakes, and streams of the interior. It also has charge of the 
seal and salmon fisheries of Alaska and the care of the fur-bearing animals 
of Alaska. 

Its work is divided into four parts: (1) The hatching and rearing of 
food fishes and their distribution and planting in suitable waters; (2) 
studies and investigations of the fishing grounds and waters of the country 
to determine the abundance, habits and migrations of fishes, their growth 



88 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

and food, and other facts concerning their lives; (3) investigations of 
the markets and prices for fish, methods of their capture, and bringing to 
the knowledge of the consumer new or little-known varieties which are 
suitable for food ; (4) fostering the salmon fisheries of Alaska, regulating 
the taking of fur-bearing land animals there, and the care of the fur-seals 
on the Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea. A large revenue comes to the 
Government from the sale of the skins of these seals. 

The bureau has 50 principal hatcheries, located at suitable places in 
the United States, which in the fiscal year 191 6 produced 4,800,000,000 
fish and fish eggs. Young fish are furnished free of expense, for stocking 
purposes only, to any citizen who has suitable waters in which to plant 
them. For this purpose six specially constructed railroad cars are 
employed. 

Besides the hatcheries, three biological laboratories are maintained 
at which scientific investigations are carried on. 

In conducting its operations, the Bureau of Fisheries uses three sea- 
going steamers and one schooner, besides a number of smaller steamers 
and motor boats. 

BUREAU OP LIGHTHOUSES. 

The United States Lighthouse Service belongs to the Department of 
Commerce. The first lighthouse on this continent was built in 171 5-16, 
at the entrance of Boston Harbor, by the Province of Massachusetts. 
The funds necessary to pay for the expense of this lighthouse were raised 
by dues on incoming and outgoing vessels. These dues were called 
"light dues." There were several other lighthouses built by the Colonies, 
and Congress, by an act passed August 7, 1789, authorized the main- 
tenance of lighthouses at the expense of the United States. At that 
time there were in operation 8 lighthouses, that the Colonies had built, 
and 5 additional lighthouses were completed, making 13 in all, which 
were given by the States to the General Government. For over a century 
the lighthouses were under the Secretary of the Treasury. On July 1, 
1903, they were transferred to the Department of Commerce and Labor. 
On March 4, 191 3, when the Department of Commerce was established, 
the Bureau of Lighthouses became a part of that department. The 
Lighthouse Service of the Bureau of Lighthouses has charge of establish- 
ing and maintaining all lights or aids to navigation on the seacoasts and 
coasts of the lakes, on the rivers and on the coast of all other territory 
under the jurisdiction of the United States, excepting the Philippine 
Islands and Panama. Lighthouses are maintained on such American 
possessions as the Samoan Islands, Guam, Porto Rico, and Guantanamo 
Bay in Cuba. 

There are two classes of aids to navigation: Lighthouses, lights of 
lesser importance called "minor lights," light vessel stations, gas buoys, 
float lights; there are over 5,000 of these. There are more than 9,000 
other kinds of aid to navigation, called " unlighted aids." They are called 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 89 

fog signals, submarine signals, whistling buoys, bell buoys, day beacons 
and other buoys. Nearly 50 vessels, called lighthouse tenders, are used 
to distribute supplies to the various stations and light vessels and for 
transporting the officers of the service on official business and materials 
for construction and repair and for placing and carrying for the buoyage 
system. On Staten Island, in New York Harbor, there is a general light- 
house depot, where many of the supplies for the whole service are stored 
and distributed to the points needed and where much of the special 
apparatus of the service is manufactured, repaired and tested. 

The Lighthouse Service publishes weekly notices to mariners, lists of 
lights for the various coasts, and buoy lists for each lighthouse district. 
These publications are distributed free. 

COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY. 

It is the duty of the Coast and Geodetic Survey to survey the coasts 
and make charts for the use of mariners for the coasts of the United 
States, the Philippines, Alaska, Hawaii, and Porto Rico. 

In order that the necessary data may be secured it is necessary to 
make accurate measurements of the distances over the areas to be 
charted and the fixing of points for the control of the surveys. The 
method employed for determining these control points is known as 
triangulation. 

The coast line and the land areas along the coast are then surveyed, 
using the control points for keeping the surveys in correct position. 
The process of mapping the land area is known as topography. 

The depths of the waters along the coasts are then measured with a 
sounding line and lead, and submerged rocks and other dangers to 
navigation are sought out and located. The survey of the water area 
is called hydrography. 

In connection with the survey of the ocean areas the Coast and Geo- 
detic Survey makes deep-sea soundings and current observations and 
ascertains the temperature of the ocean waters. Observations for the 
determination of the variation of the compass are made at thousands of 
places on land and on the sea. Continuous observations of the tides are 
also made at many places along our coasts in order to learn the variations 
in the depths of water due to tidal and also to meteorological causes. 

The results of the survey's work are published in annual reports and 
in special publications. Charts upon various scales are published, includ- 
ing sailing charts, general charts of the coast, and harbor charts. Tide 
tables are issued annually in advance. Books entitled ''Coast Pilots," 
which contain sailing directions covering the navigable waters of the 
country, and "Notices to Mariners," which are issued weekly and con- 
tain current information necessary for safe navigation. The Notices to 
Mariners are published jointly by the Coast and Geodetic Survey and 
the Bureau of Lighthouses. Catalogues of charts and such other pub- 



po student's textbook. 

iications as may be required to carry out the organic law governing the 
survey are also issued. 

Much interesting and valuable work is performed by the Coast and 
Geodetic Survey in the surveys of land and harbors of the United States. 
In the land surveys the coast is surveyed with relation to the water of 
the coast. In the harbors of the country the depths of the water are 
measured and maps drawn showing these exact depths. Where there 
are dangerous rocks at the bottom of the harbor, they are specially marked 
on these maps or charts and buoys are fastened to them to warn the ships. 

In this bureau there is a machine that is a mechanical prophet. It 
foretells the tides of the ocean all over the world. Some time during 1917 
it was working on the tides for the harbor of Bombay, India, for the 
afternoon of October 15, 191 8. It does not make the least difference to 
the machine whether the information desired is for 191 8 or 1958. It is 
just as easy for it to foretell the tide 100 years hence as it is for it to do 
so for two years hence. It required 15 years to perfect this machine, 
which was invented, constructed, and is operated in the United States 
Coast and Geodetic Survey in Washington City. This is the most 
highly perfected machine of its kind in the world. 

It is necessary for the captains of ocean-going ships to know what the 
tide will be in any port to which the ship is going at whatever time it 
reaches that port. Many channels are used only at high tide and at 
low tide other channels in the same harbor must be used. If a ship 
should come into a harbor without knowing the exact tide, it would be 
liable to be wrecked upon the rocks on the uneven bottom of the harbor 
which are dangerous at low tide but over which the ships may pass 
safely at high tide. 

This machine makes calculations in from 10 to 15 hours which would 
keep one human calculator busy six months. There are very few 
accountants who can calculate at the same time from 10 factors and give 
the result at once. This machine calculates from 37 factors at the same 
time and gives the result on paper by the turn of a crank. The use of 
the results of the work of this machine has made travel on board ocean- 
going ships perfectly safe wherever the condition of the tide causes any 
uncertainty. 

STEAMBOAT-INSPECTION SERVICE. 

Congress has from time to time passed laws requiring lifeboats, signal 
lights, fire pumps and hose on passenger vessels, for the better security 
of passengers on board vessels propelled in whole or in part by steam, 
and it established the Steamboat-Inspection Service, with inspectors to 
examine the hulls and boilers of all steamboats that carry passengers 
and report as to their safety. These inspectors also inspect the life- 
boats, signal lights, fire pumps and hose, the rafts, life-saving appliances 
and fire-fighting apparatus, and the structure of these steamboats to see 
that each steamboat is fully equipped according to the requirements. 



student's textbook. 91 

Each steamboat is allowed to carry only a limited number of passengers, 
and the steamboat inspectors decide the number that may safely be 
carried. These inspectors examine all steam vessels navigating any 
waters of the United States excepting Government-owned vessels and 
canal boats. All coastwise, seagoing steam vessels on the Atlantic and 
Pacific Oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, the Great Lakes, and the rivers and 
waters of the United States flowing into these great bodies of water 
must be inspected by the Steamboat-Inspection Service at least once a 
year, and a certificate is issued only after the boat has been found to be 
in lawful condition. Licenses are granted to masters of vessels, mates, 
pilots, and engineers by the Steamboat-Inspection Service and are good 
for five years. Whenever any steam vessel is being operated or navigated 
without complying with the provisions of the steamboat-inspection 
laws, the certificate of inspection is immediately revoked and no new 
certificate is issued until the law has been fully complied with. Any 
master or owner of a vessel whose certificate has been revoked may 
appeal to the Secretary of Commerce, who has power to direct the issu- 
ance of a certificate of inspection. 

DEPARTMENT OF LABOR. 

The law creating the Department of Labor gives this department the 
authority to foster, promote, and develop the welfare of the wage earners 
of the United States; to improve their working conditions, and to 
advance their opportunities for profitable employment. The depart- 
ment was therefore created in the interest of the welfare of all the wage 
earners of the United States, whether organized or unorganized, whether 
native or foreign born. The supreme motive of all who represent the 
Department of Labor is fairness between wage earner and wage earner, 
between wage earner and employer, between employer and employer, 
and between each of these and the public. 

The department, through the Secretary of Labor, acts as a mediator 
in labor disputes whenever, in the judgment of the Secretary, the inter- 
ests of industrial peace require this to be done. 

The department aids the foreigners of the country in many ways. 

Through the Bureau of Naturalization it has had the public-school 
authorities in all of the principal cities throughout the United States 
open night classes which candidates for citizenship are invited to attend. 
In these classes these foreign-born residents are taught how to become 
useful citizens of the country. 

Through the Immigration Bureau it aids the foreigners coming to our 
shores in landing and in reaching the places to which they are destined ; 
and thousands of places of employment are constantly being secured for 
working people — laborers as well as mechanics of all kinds — all over 
the United States. 



92 student's textbook. 

It gathers all kinds of useful information upon subjects connected with 
labor, showing hours of labor, the earnings of laboring men and women, 
and the means of promoting their material, social intellectual, and 
moral advancement. It also gathers full and complete statistics upon 
the conditions of labor, its products, and their distribution. 

Under the Children's Bureau investigations are made of all matters 
pertaining to the welfare of children and child life. 

The Bureau of Naturalization has charge of all of the foreign-born 
residents of the United States who take out their first papers and aids 
them through its naturalization examiners located in different parts of 
the United States in securing their American citizenship. 

Through the public schools all over the United States the Bureau of 
Naturalization is working so that the many hundreds of thousands of 
foreigners who annually are candidates for citizenship may learn of their 
rights and responsibilities as American citizens. As 90 per cent of 
these applicants for naturalization are wage earners, this work of the 
public schools enables them to understand their rights as laboring people, 
enables them better to understand their surrounding conditions, so that 
they may wisely and fairly consider the problems which flow from the 
relations of employer and employee. 

The administration of the naturalization law by the United States 
Government is accomplished without using the taxes paid by the citizens 
and foreigners for the support of the Government. The Bureau of 
Naturalization, and all of the cost of its support, is more than paid for 
by the foreigners who are applicants for naturalization. The Govern- 
ment gets over one-half of the naturalization fees which the candidates 
for citizenship pay to the clerks of the courts all over the United States. 
The amount that was turned into the Treasury of the United States in 
the 10 years of Federal supervision is $3,542,857.47. During this time 
the expense of the administration of the naturalization law was $2,880,- 
778.42. A surplus has therefore been placed in the Treasury of the 
United States by the Commissioner of Naturalization of $662,079.05 
from the naturalization fees collected. There were $65,129 in natural- 
ization fees collected in 1907, the first year of Federal supervision, and 
$635,037.02 in 1917. 

THE JUDICIAL BRANCH. 

The judicial branch of the Government is presided over by the Chief 
Justice of the United States. The judicial power of the United States 
is vested by the Constitution in the Supreme Court, and in such inferior 
courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The 
Supreme Court of the United States is composed of the Chief Justice of 
the United States and eight associate justices. All of these justices and 
the judges of the inferior courts which Congress ordains and establishes 
under the authority of the Constitution hold their offices during their 



student's textbook. 93 

lifetime. They can be removed from office only by impeachment pro- 
ceedings, and the only ground for these proceedings is misbehavior on 
the part of the judge. The judicial power of the United States extends to 
all cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution, the laws and 
treaties of the United States. It also extends to all cases affecting 
ambassadors or public ministers and consuls, admiralty and maritime 
cases, controversies to which the United States shall be a party, con- 
troversies between two or more States, between a State and the citizens 
of another State, between citizens of different States, between citizens 
of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and 
between a State or its citizens and foreign States, their citizens or subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, public ministers, and consuls, and 
in cases in which one of the States shall be a party to the suit, the Supreme 
Court of the United States has original jurisdiction. In all of the other 
cases mentioned the inferior courts ordained and established by Congress 
under the Constitution have jurisdiction with the right of appeal to the 
Supreme Court of the United States. 

The Federal judiciary extends throughout the United States and 
includes the Territories of Alaska and Hawaii, and Porto Rico and the 
Canal Zone. 

There are nine judicial divisions of the United States, which are called 
circuits. In each of these divisions there are two kinds of United States 
courts. They are called district courts of the United States and United 
States Circuit Courts of Appeals. A suit that may be instituted in a 
Federal court is filed in the district court of the United States where the 
person lives. When it has been tried and decided by that court the 
decision of the court may be reviewed in the United States Circuit Court 
of Appeals for that circuit. When it has been tried and decided in that 
court it may be tried by the Supreme Court of the United States if it is 
a case that under the Constitution or laws of Congress is deemed of 
sufficient importance to have consideration by the Supreme Court of the 
United States. In a district court there is at least one judge, while three 
judges are provided for each of the United States Circuit Courts of 
Appeals. There are stated times and places for holding terms of the 
district courts of the United States and the United States Circuit Courts 
of Appeals. The Chief Justice and the associate justices of the Supreme 
Court are each assigned to a judicial circuit, and each may sit as one of 
the judges of the Circuit Court of Appeals to which he is assigned. 

A United States district court has been established for the Panama 
Canal Zone, which holds sessions at Ancon and Cristobal. A United 
States court for China has also been created, which holds sessions at 
Shanghai, with authority to sit at Canton, Tientsin, and Hankau, China. 

In addition to these Federal courts there is a Court of Claims of the 
United States, and a United States Court of Customs Appeals, that sit in 
the city of Washington, the capital of the Nation. The Court of Claims 



94 student's textbook. 

has general jurisdiction of all claims founded upon the Constitution of 
the United States or any law of Congress, except for pensions, and of 
claims that arise under regulations of executive departments or upon 
contracts with the Government of the United States, or for certain 
damages where the claimant is entitled to redress against the United 
States. The United States Court of Customs Appeals decides cases 
arising out of the customs laws of the United States. 

MISCELLANEOUS INSTITUTIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT. 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

The United States owns its own printing and binding plant, which is 
located in Washington, D. C, and is known as the United States Govern- 
ment Printing Office. It is under the direction of the Public Printer, 
who is appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. This 
is the largest printing oSice in the world, employs 5,000 persons, and 
occupies several buildings, containing a floor space of 13^ acres. 

In this office is done the printing and binding of all publications for 
Congress and the departments of the Government. The Congressional 
Record, giving in exact detail the proceedings of Congress, is issued each 
day during the sessions of Congress. Each Member of Congress is en- 
titled to a certain number of copies, which are mailed free of cost to per- 
sons designated by them. During sessions of Congress from 20,000 to 
25,000 bills and resolutions are introduced. These bills are printed, 
in addition to a vast quantity of other miscellaneous work. The work 
for the departments embraces all current publications, furnishing in- 
formation covering every imaginable subject, and also enormous quan- 
tities of miscellaneous work, including postal cards and money orders. 

Anyone desiring to secure a copy of any document of a public nature 
can do so by communicating with the Superintendent of Documents, 
Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. These copies are sold 
at cost price. 

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 

James Smithson, an Englishman, bequeathed his fortune to the United 
States "to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian 
Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge 
among men." From the accumulated income of the bequest the Smith- 
sonian Building was erected in 1 847-1 855 on land given to the institution 
by the United States. The original endowment of $541,000 has been 
increased by other bequests and gifts to about a million dollars which is 
by law deposited in the United States Treasury. The annual income of 
this permanent fund is devoted to expense of maintenance, to explora- 
tion and research, and publication. 

Among its members are the President of the United States, the Vice 
President, the Chief Justice, and the President's Cabinet. 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 95 

The Smithsonian Institution has administrative charge of six branches 
which grow out of its early activities and which are now supported 
through appropriations by Congress. These are the National Museum 
(including the National Gallery of Art); the International Exchange 
Service; the Bureau of American Ethnology; the National Zoological 
Park; the Astrophysical Observatory; and the United States Regional 
Bureau of the International Catalogue of Scientific Literatute. 

THE FEDERAL RESERVE BOARD. 

The Federal Reserve Board, located in Washington, is composed of 
five members. These members are appointed by the President of the 
United States by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Two 
of these members must have had banking experience. In addition to 
these five, there are two other members of the board. They are the 
Secretary of the Treasury and the Comptroller of the Currency. They 
are members ex officio (by virtue of their offices). 

The Federal Reserve law was passed by Congress and approved by the 
President on December 23, 191 3. Under this law the United States has 
been divided into 12 Federal Reserve bank districts. At a central point 
in each of these 12 districts, one of the 12 Federal Reserve banks is 
located. The object of the Federal Reserve act is to form one great 
banking system. All national banks are members of this banking sys- 
tem, and such State banks and trust companies as desire to do so may 
join it. 

Each of these 12 Federal Reserve banks has nine bank directors. 
Three of these are appointed by the Federal Reserve Board in Wash- 
ington and six are elected by the banks of the district that are members 
of the system. These directors manage the Federal Reserve banks in 
much the same manner as directors of smaller banks do their banks. 
These Federal Reserve banks are under the direct supervision of the 
Federal Reserve Board. These 12 Federal Reserve banks are some- 
times known as banks of banks, because they do no banking business 
directly with the general public, but only with the banks of the system. 
The banks of the system are known as member banks. They contribute 
to the capital stock of the Reserve banks in proportion to their own 
capital and surplus. The chief function of the Reserve banks is to lend 
money to their member banks by discounting acceptable collateral secur- 
ity. This security is specified in the law to represent commercial paper- 
having short maturities. Federal Reserve banks are also permitted to 
invest in Government bonds, city and town warrants having a short time 
to run, and in bankers' acceptances. Each Federal Reserve bank is, 
therefore, a central bank for its district, and after paying dividends to 
its stockholders, all further earnings go to the Federal Government. 
The stockholders are the member banks, and the dividend is limited to 
6 per cent per annum. 



96 student's textbook. 

THE PANAMA CANAL. 

On May 4, 1904, in accordance with an agreement with the Republic 
of Panama, the United States Government took possession of a strip 
of land 10 miles wide, running across the Isthmus of Panama, which is 
called the Canal Zone. Immediate steps were taken to dig a waterway- 
through this strip of land, and, as a result, on August 15, 19 14, the 
Panama Canal was opened to the commerce of the world. While there 
have been some interruptions to traffic due to landslides, it is believed 
that there will be no more serious trouble from this source in the future. 

A lock canal has been constructed with a large artificial lake covering 
about 167 square miles through which the canal passes. The entire 
length of the canal from deep water in the Atlantic Ocean to deep water 
in the Pacific Ocean is about 50 miles. Its length from shore line to 
shore line is about 40 miles. In passing through it from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific a vessel will enter a sea-level channel 500 feet wide and 
7 miles long, extending to the Gatun Locks. Here it will enter a series 
of three locks and be lifted 85 feet to the level of Gatun Lake. It may 
steam at full speed through this lake in a channel varying from 1 ,000 to 
500 feet in width for a distance of 24 miles, when it will enter the Gaillard 
Cut. It will pass through the cut, a distance of about 9 miles, in a 
channel with a width of 300 feet, to the Pedro Miguel Lock. There it 
will enter a lock and be lowered 30 feet to a small lake at an elevation 
of 55 feet above sea level and will pass through this lake for about 1% 
miles to the Miraflores Locks. There it will enter two locks and be 
lowered to the sea level, passing out into the Pacific Ocean through a 
channel about 8 miles in length, and with a minimum depth of 41 feet. 

The Government is equipping the canal with all requisite facilities 
for the accommodation of the shipping interests, such as machine shops, 
large dry docks, coaling plants, fuel-oil handling plants, and storehouses 
for supplies. The estimated cost of the construction of the canal is 
$375,000,000. 

The canal is of great commercial value to the world on account of the 
distances saved by vessels. The great United States Atlantic port of 
New York, for instance, is nearer to the great Pacific port of San Francisco 
through the use of the canal by 7,873 nautical miles. The distance of 
13,135 miles by Magellan has been reduced to 5,262 miles by the canal. 
The canal makes San Francisco nearer to Liverpool by 5,666 miles, and 
New York to Guayaquil by 7,405 miles. The Panama Canal will un- 
questionably stimulate the world's trade and prove to be a great blessing 
to mankind. 

THE AMERICAN NATIONAL RED CROSS. 

The American National Red Cross is a philanthropic organization 
incorporated by the Congress of the United States for the purpose of 
furnishing voluntary aid to the sick and wounded of the Army and Navy 
in time of war, in accordance with the Treaty of Geneva, and to carry 
on a system of national and international relief in time of peace, and to 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 97 

apply the same in the mitigation of suffering caused by pestilence, 
famine, fire, floods, and other great calamities, and to devise and carry 
on measures for preventing the same. The governing body of the Amer- 
ican Red Cross is a central committee of 18 members, six of whom 
including the chairman, are appointed annually by the President of the 
United States. 

Since January 5, 1905, the date of its present charter, it has con- 
ducted relief operations in the United States and in foreign countries 
after 94 different disasters, including famines, earthquakes, fires, cyclones, 
floods, mine explosions, epidemics, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, 
shipwrecks, and war. It has raised and expended in the above relief 
operations, including the campaign against tuberculosis, over $15,000,000 
in cash and several million dollars' worth of supplies. It conducts a 
first-aid department- which has been the means of bringing first-aid 
instruction to hundred of thousands of people employed in the industrial 
pursuits. It conducts classes for women in elementary hygiene and 
home care of the sick in every section of the country. The Town and 
Country Nursing Service of the Red Cross has made possible the benefits 
of trained nursing in rural communities. It has enrolled a corps of over 
6,000 of the best trained nurses of the country, and an organized medical 
service, both available to the Government in time of war or for relief 
work in epidemics or disasters. Any resident of the United States or 
its exterior possessions is eligible for enrollment as a member of the 
Red Cross. 

THE PAN AMERICAN UNION. 

The Pan American Union is the official international organization 
of the 21 American Republics. It is devoted to the development and 
advancement of commerce, friendly intercourse, and good understand- 
ing among those countries. It is supported by quotas contributed by 
each country, based upon population. Its affairs are administered by 
a director general and assistant director, elected by and responsible to a 
governing board, which is composed of the Secretary of State of the 
United States and the diplomatic representatives in Washington of the 
other American Governments. It publishes a monthly bulletin in four 
editions — one entirely in English, for circulation in the United States, 
and the others in Spanish, Portuguese, and French, for circulation in 
Latin America — each of which contains descriptive, commercial, general, 
and specific information regarding the progress and development of Pan 
America. The union prepares careful reports on the export and import 
trade of every American Republic ; makes special studies of the resources 
and material wealth and possibilities of each land, and publishes pam- 
phlets covering tariffs and laws which have to do with trade and the 
investment of capital. It organizes, prepares the programs, preserves 
the records, and executes the resolutions of the great international 
conferences of the American Republics held at varying intervals. 
42783°— 21 7-f-8 



98 student's textbook. 

THE CITY OF WASHINGTON, 

Bach one of the 48 States and the Territories has its capital. The 
city of Washington is the capital of the Nation, The city of Washington 
is located in the District of Columbia, which is the smallest independent 
political division of the United States. Although Washington is the 
capital of this Republic, it is the only city in the United States which 
does not represent either a republican or a democratic form of govern- 
ment. In every city in the Union except in the city of Washington 
the political affairs are regulated by the votes of the people. At one 
time the affairs of the city were controlled and administered by its voters, 
but in 1 87 1 the Congress passed a law taking away the right of suffrage 
from the citizens of the District of Columbia. It did this under its 
authority provided in the Constitution of the United States to exercise 
exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over the district of Columbia. 

The President of the United States lives in the White House at Wash- 
ington. The Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States 
meet and hold their sessions in the Capitol Building. All of the execu- 
tive departments of the Government occupy buildings in Washington, 
in which the affairs of the Nation are administered. 

Before 1871 the city of Washington had a mayor, who was elected in 
the same manner as mayors in other cities. Since 1874 tne govern- 
ment of the District of Columbia has been in charge of three commis- 
sioners, who are appointed by the President of the United States by and 
with the consent of the Senate. One of these commissioners is an officer 
of the United States Army, while the other two are selected from civil life. 
The Congress bears somewhat the same relation to the city of Washington 
as that borne by the common council, aldermen, or other equivalent mu- 
nicipal lawmaking body of any other city. As the citizens of the District 
of Columbia do not vote, they have organized a number of civic bodies 
representing the various sections of the District. These organizations 
study the needs of the community and make their recommendations 
to the commissioners; they, in turn, submit estimates for all cost of 
administration, including improvements of whatever nature, to the 
Congress through the Secretary of the Treasury. These estimates are 
submitted in what is known as the "budget" form, and contain all of 
the revenues as well as the proposed expenditures for the entire year. 
There is a committee in the Senate and one in the House of Represent- 
atives known as the Committee on the District of Columbia. These 
committees consider all measures that are proposed on behalf of the 
District of Columbia and city of Washington, except providing funds 
for the administration of the District government. These funds are 
provided for by the committees of the two Houses known as the Appro- 
priations Committees. They are called " Appropriations" Committees, 
because they prepare bills, called "appropriation bills," for Congress to 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 99 

enact into laws for the administration of the legislative, executive, and 
judicial branches of the United States Government and for the govern- 
ment of the District of Columbia. 

Although there is no right of franchise in the District of Columbia,, 
the needs of the District, as presented to Congress through the Com- 
missioners and the various citizens' organizations, are uniformly cared 
for. As a result of this, the city of Washington is the most beautiful 
city in the United States, and by some it is held to be the most beautiful 
city in the world. The city of Washington is noted for its almost num- 
berless shade trees and public buildings. As seen from the dome of 
the Capitol, it presents the appearance, in many directions, of a con- 
tinuous forest, with beautiful buildings here and there showing out 
among the trees. Commencing at the Capitol Building, for miles one 
may see a stretch of forest extending across the Potomac River and over 
into the hills of Virginia. It has many large parks and hundreds of 
small ones dotting the city in all sections. Probably the most beautiful 
city park in the world will be found in the Zoological Park, Rock Creek 
Park, and Potomac Park, as they exist at the present time and are planned. 
They commence in the Potomac River, south of the city, and by a series 
of boulevards and parkways continue through the city and out into the 
hilly, rolling country for miles to the north. They contain thousands 
of acres of land and include many miles of beautiful drives and boule= 
vards. 

Washington may well be called the seat of learning of the United 
States 5 for it contains more educational institutions than any other 
city in this country. It is the great seat of scientific research of the 
world. The Library of Congress contains over 2,500,000 volumes upon 
every science, trade, profession, religion, and thought of the human race, 
which are open to public use without charge. In addition to these 
books there are numbers of maps, manuscripts, musical compositions, 
and rare prints in the Library. It has a population of about 430,000, 
about one- third of which belong to the Negro race. Every nationality 
is represented in the city of Washington, either in official life or among 
its residents. 

The site of the national capital was selected and the city founded by 
the great and good Washington and was very properly given his name 
to honor him throughout all time. General Washington also laid the 
corner stones of the Capitol and the White House. One of the most 
beautiful memorials to any human being is seen in the Washington 
Monument. Another memorial, not only to the person but to the 
principles for which he struggled and stood, is found in the one erected 
to Abraham Lincoln. The Capitol Building, the Washington Monu- 
ment, the Lincoln Memorial, and the Library of Congress are among 
the most impressive structures of their kinds in the world. 



ioo student's textbook. 

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Mr. Chairman, Ladies, and Gentlemen: 

I have come here for the simple purpose of expressing my very deep interest in 
what these conferences are intended to attain. It is not fair to the great multitudes 
of hopeful men and women who press into this country from other countries that we 
should leave them without that friendly and intimate instruction which will enable 
them very soon after they come to find out what America is like at heart and what 
America in intended for among the nations of the world. 

I believe that the chief school that these people must attend after they get here is 
the school which all of us attend, which is furnished by the life of the communities 
in which we live and the nation to which we belong. It has been a very touching 
thought to me sometimes to think of the hopes which have drawn these people to 
America. I have no doubt that many a simple soul has been thrilled by that great 
statue standing in the harbor of New York and seeming to lift the light of liberty for 
the guidance of the feet of men; and I can imagine that they have expected here 
something ideal in the treatment that they will receive, something ideal in the laws 
which they would have to live under, and it has caused me many a time to turn upon 
myself the eye of examination to see whether there burned in me the true light of the 
American spirit which they expected to find here. It is easy, my fellow citizens, to 
communicate physical lessons, but it is very difficult to communicate spiritual lessons. 
America was intended to be a spirit among the nations of the world, and it is the pur- 
pose of conferences like this to find out the best way to introduce the newcomers to 
this spirit, and by that very interest in them to enhance and purify in ourselves the 
thing that ought to make America great, and not only ought to make her great but 
ought to make her exhibit a spirit unlike any other nation in the world. 

I have never been among those who felt comfortable in boasting of the superiority 
of America over other countries. The way to cure yourself of that is to travel in other 
countries and find out how much of nobility and character and fine enterprise there 
is everywhere in the world. The most that America can hope to do is to show, it may 
be, the finest example, not the only example, of the things that ought to benefit and 
promote the progress of the world. 

So my interest in this movement is as much an interest in ourselves as in those whom 
we are trying to Americanize, because if we are genuine Americans they can not avoid 
the infection; whereas, if we are not genuine Americans, there will be nothing to 
infect them with, and no amount of teaching, no amount of exposition of the Constitu- 
tion — which I find very few persons understand — no amount of dwelling upon the 
idea of liberty and of justice will accomplish the object we have in view, unless we 
ourselves illustrate the idea of justice and of liberty. My interest in this movement 
is, therefore, a twofold interest. I believe it will assist us to become self-conscious in 
respect of the fundamental ideas of American life. When you ask a man to be loyal 
to a government, if he comes from some foreign countries, his idea is that he is expected 
to be loyal to a certain set of persons like a ruler or a body set in authority over him, 
but that is not the American idea. Our idea is that he is to be loyal to certain objects 
in life, and that the only reason he has a President and a Congress and a governor and 
a State legislature and courts is that the community shall have instrumentalities by 
which to promote those objects. It is a cooperative organization expressing itself in 
this Constitution, expressing itself in these laws, intending to express itself in the 
exposition of those laws by the courts; and the idea of America is not so much that 
men are to be restrained and punished by the law as instructed and guided by the 
law. That is the reason so many hopeful reforms come to grief. A law can not work 
until it expresses the spirit of the community for which it is enacted, and if you try 
to enact into law what expresses only the spirit of a small coterie or of a small minority, 



student's textbook. ioi 

you know, or at any rate you ought to know, beforehand that it is not going to work 
The object of the law is that there, written upon these pages, the citizen should read 
the record of the experience of this State and Nation; what they have concluded it 
is necessary for them to do because of the life they have lived and the things that they 
have discovered to be elements in that life. So that we ought to be careful to main- 
tain a government at which the immigrant can look with the closest scrutiny and to 
which he should be at liberty to address this question: "You declare this to be a 
land of liberty and of equality and of justice ; have you made it so by your law? " We 
Dught to be able in our schools, in our night schools and in every other method of 
instructing these people, to show them that that has been our endeavor. We can not 
conceal from them long the fact that we are just as human as any other nation, that 
we are just as selfish, that there are just as many mean people amongst us as anywhere 
else, that there are just as many people here who want to take advantage of other 
people as you can find in other countries, just as many cruel people, just as many 
people heartless when it comes to maintaining and promoting their own interest, but 
you can show that our object is to get these people in harness and see to it that 'they 
do not do any damage and are not allowed to indulge the passions which would 
bring injustice and calamity at last upon a nation whose object is spiritual and not 
material. 

America has built up a great body of wealth. America has become, from the 
physical point of view, one of the most powerful nations in the world, a nation 
which if it took the pains to do so, could build that power up into one of the most 
formidable instruments in the world, one of the most formidable instruments of 
force, but which has no other idea than to use its force for ideal objects and not for 
self-aggrandizement. 

We have been disturbed recently, my fellow citizens, by certain symptoms which 
have showed themselves in our body politic. Certain men — I have never believed 
a great number — born in other lands, have in recent months thought more of those 
lands than they have of the honor and interest of the government under which they 
are now living. They have even gone so far as to draw apart in spirit and in organiza- 
tion from the rest of us to accomplish some special object of their own. I am not here 
going to utter any criticism of these people, but I want to say this, that such a thing 
as that is absolutely incompatible with the fundamental idea of loyalty, and that 
loyalty is not a self -pleasing virtue . I am not bound to be loyal to the United States 
to please myself. I am bound to be loyal to the United States because I live under 
its laws and am its citizen, and whether it hurts me or whether it benefits me, I am 
obliged to be loyal. Loyalty means nothing unless it has at its heart the absolute 
principle of self-sacrifice. Loyalty means that you ought to be ready to sacrifice 
every interest that you have, and your life itself, if your country calls upon you to do 
so, and that is the sort of loyalty which ought to be inculcated into these newcomers, 
that they are not to be loyal only so long as they are pleased, but that, having once 
entered into this sacred relationship, they are bound to be loyal whether they are 
pleased or not; and that loyalty which is merely self-pleasing is only self-indulgence 
and selfishness. No man has ever risen to the real stature of spiritual manhood until 
he has found that it is finer to serve somebody else than it is to serve himself. 

These are the conceptions which we ought to teach the newcomers into our midst, 
and we ought to realize that the life of every one of us is part of the schooling, and that 
we can not preach loyalty unless we set the example, that we can not profess things 
with any influence upon others unless we practice them also. This process of Ameri- 
canization is going to be a process of self-examination, a process of purification, a proc- 
ess of rededication to the things which America represents and is proud to represent. 
And it takes a great deal more courage and steadfastness, my fellow citizens, to repre- 
sent ideal things than to represent anything else. It is easy to lose your temper, and 



102 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

hard to keep it. It is easy to strike and sometimes very difficult to refrain from 
striking, and I think you will agree with me that we are most justified in being proud 
of doing the things that are hard to do and not the things that are easy. You do not 
settle things quickly by taking what seems to be the quickest way to settle them. 
You may make the complication just that much the more profound and inextricable, 
and, therefore, what I believe America should exalt above everything else is the 
sovereignty of thoughtf ulness and sympathy and vision as against the grosser impulses 
of mankind. No nation can live without vision, and no vision will exalt a nation 
except the vision of real liberty and real justice and purity of conduct,, 



CITIZENSHIP LABORATORY. 

CITIZENSHIP IN THE CITY. 

Assemble the classes of each school building in one room, men and 
women together, and tell them that they represent the city, that they 
will soon become citizens of the United States, and that they are to 
learn how to assume the responsibilities and rights and perform the 
duties of citizenship. For this purpose they are to be considered as 
the entire adult voting population of the city. Briefly outline the form 
of government in the city, defining the offices of mayor or commissioner, 
councilman, alderman, or their local equivalents, the various adminis- 
trative departments of the municipality, and describe the city judiciary. 
Explain how these offices have been filled by their incumbents and the 
relation of the individual voters to the incumbents. 

DUTIES OF OFFICIALS OF CITY. 

The mayor and other officials of the city government should be pre- 
vailed upon to define fully the duties of their respective offices. All of 
thL will be most interestedly and profitably received by the students, 
who should be encouraged to make as extensive notes as possible, and 
will prove a source of inspiration to those officials who are prevailed upon 
to address the student body upon the duties of their respective offices. 
The President, in his address to the newly naturalized citizens in Phila- 
delphia on May 10, 191 5, said, "I feel that is has renewed my spirit as 
an American to be here." 

DISCUSSIONS. 

Discussions of the subject of each of these addresses should be en- 
gaged in by the student body after each talk and the duties of the offices 
debated so as to fix them in the minds of the prospective citizens. Out- 
line for discussions will be found later in this course. 

FRANCHISE AND BALLOT. 

After the duties and responsibilities of the different offices of the city 
government have been described by the incumbents of these offices or 
their representatives, and the student body has fully discussed these 
subjects with evident understanding, the students should be assembled 
for instruction in the franchise, its rights, powers, purposes, and uses., 
The ballot, in the exercise of the franchise, both in primary and final 
elections, should be made known to them and the necessity for purity in 
its use fully dwelt upon by the teacher, followed by discussions upon the 
franchise and the ballot and their relation in this country to government 
and to the individual citizen; the good that will flow from its wise and 

103 



I04 student's textbook. 

proper use, and the evil from its unwise and improper use emphasized? 
the purposes and powers of the ballot and its relationship to the election 
of municipal, State, and national officials clearly shown. 

Bach of these subjects should be fully discussed and debated by pupils. 
In their treatment the teacher should always keep prominently in mind 
the necessity for developing the sense of individual responsibility and 
relationship to the whole political organization. Assignments of sub- 
jects should be made by the teacher so as to include and stimulate the 
diffident and backward to a participation in this work. 

NOMINATIONS AND ELECTIONS. 

When understanding has become general throughout the student body 
its members should be required to put into practice the lessons which 
they have learned. The necessity for purity of the ballot should again 
be fully emphasized. As an entire body they should be told that they 
will be expected to make use of their knowledge of the franchise and of 
the use of the ballot and will be guided through the steps of electing the 
city government, commencing with the mayor or the local equivalent. 
The local form of nomination may prevail, but as they have been taught 
both the convention and primary methods they should be allowed and 
urged to exercise the utmost freedom in their choice of method. 

Self-government should be the keynote in this entire course and 
should be developed to its fullest possibilities consistent with intelli- 
gent progress. The teacher should not dominate but steady and guide 
the students in their endeavors to emerge from their ignorance of our 
institutions into an intelligent comprehension of them. The only 
functions which the teacher should exercise in this stage of the course 
are to insure regularity and purity in the entire proceedings, to stimulate 
the backward ones to participate in some manner in the consideration 
of the subject, and to urge full discussions of both the qualifications of 
the candidate and the duties of the office, so as to bring out prominently 
the cardinal purpose of each election — the selection of the candidate 
best suited to the office. 

The teacher or principal should preside over this meeting. Tellers 
should be appointed for the election, both for the primary and final 
elections if the primary form of nomination should prevail. The pur- 
pose of this election is to remove the preconceived notions of govern- 
ment and former national prejudices and to unify and harmonize the 
different national views into one national spirit to accord with the spirit 
of our Government. The choice made will represent not a nationality 
but an expressed desire of a majority of the entire student body. The 
successful candidate should be only the one having a majority over all. 
The plurality should not be sufficient. The object of an absolute majority 
over all is to prevent the domination by one nationality by sheer pre- 
ponderance of numbers. 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 105 

City chief executive. — Nominations from the entire student body for 
the position of mayor should be invited. From three to five or more 
candidates should be placed in nomination, the number to be based by 
the teacher upon the size of the student body. But one candidate should 
be allowed for each group or nationality. The candidates for election 
should be the three receiving the highest number of votes on nomination. 
All should be encouraged to participate in the submission of names in 
nomination and to engage in large numbers in urging the qualifications 
of their respective candidates. 

In the entire student body assemblage activity should be stimulated 
by the principal, supplemented by each teacher individually endeavoring 
to inspire confident activity in the members of his individual class. 
This activity should take the shape of speeches in favor of the respective 
candidates whose names are put in nomination, not only by the one 
nominating and the one seconding the nomination, but generally through- 
out the entire student body. The individual teachers should devote 
their attention to the members of their respective classes and an effort 
should be made to elicit some expression from each member of each 
class, and in this way from each member of the student body. The 
greater participation on the part of the students the greater will be the 
influence of the spirit of the occasion on the entire body and correspond- 
ingly on each and every individual. The enthusiasm of the teachers 
will be reflected in the enthusiasm of the students. In proportion to 
the sympathetic interest of the teacher will be the response of the indi- 
vidual. The development of the responsibility of the individual to the 
entire State and entire Nation underlies all of this participation. The 
principal and teachers of the various classes should only guide in an 
advisory capacity. 

As but one candidate may be chosen and must receive a majority 
over all, it will at once be evident that at this point will commence the 
obliteration of the various national lines and prejudices. At this stage 
of this course in the laboratory of citizenship the school is a crucible in 
which the polyglot elements of American society have been placed in a 
scientific flux and are being fused in the refining fire of intelligent pa- 
triotic influences into true, comprehending, and hence loyal American 
citizens. The melting pot is what has been used in the past. There has 
been nothing but a dumping of the elements of society into the pot, 
with the resultant nondescript conception of our institutions. It should 
be abandoned and the crucible, with its scientifically prepared flux, sub- 
stituted to produce the pure and unalloyed American citizen. Assimila- 
tion of the fundamental idea of American government is here effected 
through the requirement of the various nationalities present to unite 
upon a representative, regardless of nationality, in the choice of their 
presiding officer. The common choice will force the obliteration of the 
national lines. The selection should be upon merit and an effort made 



106 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

to prevent the development of vote trading or other practices. Cor- 
ruption of the ballot should be eliminated not only from the actions but 
from the thoughts of the candidates and their supporters. 

If the interest, enthusiasm, or circumstances be sufficient to warrant 
a unanimous rising vote, it may be taken upon explaining the circum- 
stances under which such action occurs and to remove from the minds 
the possibility of confusion from regarding this as usual in general elec- 
tions. 

Induction into office. — Upon election the mayor should be escorted 
forward by members of the student body, and with suitable ceremony 
inducted into office by the administration of the oath of office by the 
teacher. The custom usually prevailing should be followed, and the 
oath to well and faithfully perform the duties of the office should be 
administered in the presence of the entire school body. The teacher 
should place the burden of the responsibilities upon the student body 
and the mayor, who should preside at all subsequent general assemblages 
of the student body as one of his official duties. 

Election of other city officials. — As they have all learned of the duties 
of the officials of the departments of city government, the members of 
the student body should next select their city legislators and organize 
the appropriate departments of city government and select their respec- 
tive heads. This should include at least the health department, police 
department, and judicial department, with such others as local condi- 
tions may justify. In the election of the aldermen or city legislators 
the unit of representation should be the classroom, one or more repre- 
sentatives from each class being determined by the mobility and effi- 
ciency of the entire body. 

Duties of city legislative body. — The legislators should formulate rules 
of government for the observance of the student body. These rules 
should apply to the conduct of the students in and around the school 
buildings, relate to the disposition of their outer clothing, deportment in 
the classrooms, promptness and regularity of attendance, participation 
in debate (to insure sharing in the exercises by each member of the 
entire school body, even though but slight participation should result 
on the part of some of the most backward and diffident), and with special 
attention to rules requiring the students to bring in the large number of 
alien residents to the night schools. The advantages to be gained from 
this are too great and vital, too far-reaching in their effect for most 
substantial good, to pass by without a consistent emphasis being laid 
upon its accomplishment. The teacher should have papers prepared 
and debates arranged upon such topics as "Why should each student 
bring a new student?" and kindred topics. They should formulate rules 
governing their conduct in the places of their vocation, in their homes, 
and on the street, and rules relating to sanitary habits and practices. 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 107 

Discussions. — These rules should be discussed as much as possible in 
the entire assemblage. They may be worked out, however, in committee. 
The students should be given to understand the various methods and be 
permitted to follow their own choice of proceeding as long as progress is 
made. 

Papers dealing with housing, with especial reference to tenements, 
large and small, should be prepared and read by the students. This is 
referred to because of its intimate relation to the resident foreign body. 
The laws governing tenement houses, especially with relation to sanita- 
tion, should be made known to them and their merits discussed, in order 
to bring home to the individual his relationship to this phase of law and 
order for the betterment of his home life. 

The police department should be required to see that the rules are 
observed and the judicial department to impose penalties for failure of 
observance of the rules. The development of a regard for law and 
order and individual responsibility for their maintenance should be 
established. 

Other branches of government of intimate concern to the resident 
foreign body, such as recreation grounds and park commissions, should 
be brought prominently before the students. 

Appointive offices. — When appointive offices are to be filled by the 

mayor care should be taken to see that national lines do not influence 

the selection, but that, so far as possible, the class standing should have 

its place. 

SUMMARY. 

From the foregoing it is seen that the laboratory has been made pos- 
sible. The efficiency of its working is dependent largely upon the 
inspiration received by the students from the school authorities. This 
is the first opportunity presented to the entire system of the public 
schools for a direct cooperation with the National Government where 
the efforts of these two agencies are linked together. Each superintend- 
ent of schools, each principal of schools, each teacher of the public schools 
is called upon to lend his highest and most intelligent effort to the per- 
fection of this course by its thorough application. This call is made with 
the full knowledge that there is sufficient patriotic devotion to the cause 
of citizenship in each public-school teacher to insure its success and the 
development of this course to that state of high efficiency which charac- 
terizes every other vocation and profession except that of the profession 
of American citizenship. With the combined effort of all public-school 
authorities with this branch of the National Government success is 
assured. 

The students should be taken into the public buildings and adminis- 
trative offices of the city, so that they may become actually acquainted 
with the purpose of the buildings and the machinery of the municipal 
government. 



108 student's textbook. 

No elaboration has been undertaken of county, State, and National 
Governments, partly because the new citizen will exercise the rights of 
citizenship oftener in the city in which he lives than in any other relation 
to government. The analogy of county, State, and National Govern- 
ment can readily be shown, so that he will not lose sight of his vital 
relation to the State and Nation. 

CLASS ALUMNI. 

When the students have completed their course and become citizens 
their experiences in the classrooms should induce them to return and 
further participate in this work so that the schoolhouse may be felt by 
them to be the legitimate place of assemblage for discussion of questions 
of public policy. This spirit should be inspired by the teachers during 
the early period of this course and be so developed as to bring about this 
result. Alumni or other public nonsecret organization should be en- 
couraged to implant in them a love for this, the alma mater of their school 
of American citizenship. 

The public schools have taught virtually every other subject relating 
to the vocations of life and they have developed these courses to the 
highest efficiency. These various phases of the city government are 
outlined generally with the knowledge that the local offices of the city 
government may differ in principle as well as in particularity. This is 
submitted, however, for adaptation to local conditions. 



FUNDAMENTALS FOR THE AMERICAN HOME. 
SOME THINGS THE HOUSEWIFE SHOULD KNOW. 

The work a woman must do in the home is so varied that sometimes 
she scarcely knows where to begin. She is busy all day caring for her 
children, cleaning, scouring, getting meals ready, and keeping clothes 
clean and mended. 

In order to keep herself and her family happy, she must not waste 
any steps or energy. She should plan to save her strength and energy 
by having things at hand — a place for everything and everything in its 
place. A well-thought-out plan of work saves steps and time. 

See that when one task is finished you do not have to go back over 
the same steps. Plan your work so that you will not be laying tools 
down and picking them up again and again. 

i. In general, use tools that take up dust rather than those that 
scatter it. 

2. Use tools on long sticks so as to prevent stooping. 

3. Plan order of work and have a definite place for everything used. 

4. Dress sensibly for housework. This does not mean to wear out the 
old dress shoes and dresses. One-piece tub garments which allow the 
hands to be raised over the head without strain on the armholes, or a 
skirt and jumper, or a bungalow house dress, are all good styles. Shoes 
should have low heels. A neat cap to keep the hair covered should be 
worn. 

Concerning food. — You must eat if you would live, and what you eat 
not only must keep you alive, but must be taken in proper quantities 
and kinds to (1) keep you warm, (2) give energy to do needed tasks, 
(3) gi ve "the mineral substances needed, (4) make bone, blood, muscle, 
brain, (5) replace the worn-out parts of the body, and (6) keep it in a 
strong condition. Most food can do this work much easier after cooking, 
for it is then easier for the body to make use of it. 

1 . What food shall we eat ? 

2 . How can we get the most strength for the least money ? 

3. How shall we prepare the food? 

These questions are continually before the housewife. 

"Feed a growing child properly and you have helped to make a good 
citizen." To have the right useful body and mind he must have the 
right kind of food at the proper time. 

109 



no student's textbook. 

No one kind of food will supply all the kinds of material needed for 
the health and growth of the body, although milk will supply more than 
any other one thing. 

Lean meat, milk, eggs, and cereals make muscle. 

Butter or oleomargarine, fat meat, sugar, and cereals keep you warm. 

Cereals, sugar, milk, butter, and any fats make you fat. 

Sugar and cereals make you want to work. 

Vegetables, fruit, and water keep your blood clean. 

Two or three well-made dishes will supply the variety needed. Fat is 
necessary, but you do not need cream, butter, and bacon all at the same 
time. Starchy foods are necessary, but ) t ou do not want cereals, potato, 
and bread at the same time. Muscle-making foods are necessary, but 
you do not need eggs and meat at the same time. Let your variety 
come over different days. 

There are certain foods which should be eaten every day. If the house- 
wife can serve some time during the day — (i) a well-cooked cereal (one 
cooked two or more hours); (2) thoroughly baked bread; (3) potatoes, or 
macaroni, or rice; (4) milk; (5) eggs; (6) some green vegetable; (7) 
some kind of fruit — she may feel pretty sure she is giving her family the 
kinds of food they need. 

If a great deal of milk is used, it is much easier to be sure of getting the 
right kinds of food, for it is rich in all kinds of body-building material but 
iron, and is one of the best sources of calcium needed for the bones and 
teeth. Children should have at least a quart a day, either as a drink or 
with a cereal, or in cooked vegetables, in soups, junket, custard, or 
pudding. A grown person requires as much calcium every day as is found 
in a pint of milk. If a milk rich in cream is used, it is particularly valu- 
able because of the fat it supplies. When the housewife cuts down her 
supply of milk she must be careful to supply other fatty foods and foods 
which will be builders of tissue. Eggs are rich in the iron which milk 
does not have and they also contain fat and building material. Every 
child should have at least one a day, but it should be soft cooked, never 
fried, or it may be used in custard, pudding, soups, etc. If the housewife 
will preserve them in water glass (silicate of soda) at the time they are 
plentiful, she will not need to pay high prices for them when they are 
scarce; or they may be packed, small end down, in bran, sawdust, lime, 
or sand; or may be coated with vaseline or fat. Some people keep them 
in lime water. They must be kept in a cool place. Dealers keep them 
in cold storage. 

Fruits and green vegetables supply the mineral matter needed and 
give bulk to the meal, which is valuable in avoiding constipation. 

Foods for children. — Meals should be eaten at the same time each day, 
and little eating between meals should be allowed. If a child is hungry 
give him milk, or bread, or crackers, or ready-to-eat breakfast food, or 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 



Ill 



mild fruit. Children under 8 should not eat meat if milk and eggs can be 
supplied. 

Types of meals suitable for a day for three children in a family with an 
income of $800. 

The following types of meals are taken from the Feeding of Young 
Children, by Mary Swartz Rose, Ph. D., (Teachers' College Bulletin 
No. 3): 

I. 



CHILD 2 TO 4 YEARS. 



Breakfast, 7.30 a. m.: 

Oatmeal mush, 8 oz. dry cereal. 

Milk, i}4 cups. 

Stale bread, 1 slice. 

Orange juice, 4 tablespoons. 
Lunch, 11 a. m. : 

Milk, 1 cup. 

Stale bread, 1 slice. 

Butte*, 1 teaspoon. 



Dinner, 1 p. m.: 

Baked potato, 1. 

Boiled onions, mashed, 1. 

Bread and butter, 1 slice,, 

Milk, 1 cup. 

Baked apple, 1. 
Supper, 5.30 p. m.: 

Boiled rice, 1 cup. 

Milk, % cup. 

Bread and butter, 1 slice. 



Substitutes. 

For rolled oats or rice: Other cereals such as rolled wheat, wheaten grits, farina 9 
hominy, or corn meal. 

For orange juice and baked apple: Prune pulp or apple sauce. 

For onions: Spinach, strained peas, stewed celery, carrots, or cauliflower tops. 

An egg may be added every day, and should be included at least two or three 
times a week. 

II. 



CHILD 4 TO 8 YEARS. 



Breakfast: 

Oatmeal mush, i^ oz. dry cereal. 

Top milk, 4 oz. 

Stewed prunes, 4 or 5. 

Toast, 1 slice. 

Milk, 6 oz. 
Dinner: 

Pea soup, 1 cup. 

Croutons, 1 slice bread. 



Dinner — Continued . 

Boiled onions, 2 small. 

Baked potato, 1 large. 

Molasses cookies, 2. 
Supper: 

Cream toast, 2 slices bread. 

Rice pudding, with milk and sugar, 
1 cup. 

Milk to drink, 5 oz. 



Substitutes. 

For rolled oats: Other cereals. 

For onions and peas: Strained dried beans, other vegetables carefully cooked, fresh 
lettuce. 

For prunes: Fresh ripe apples, baked bananas, other mild fruits well cooked. 

For rice pudding: Junkets, custards, blanc mange, bread puddings, and other very- 
simple desserts. 

For cookies: Gingerbread, sponge cake, or plain cookies. 



112 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 



III. 



CHILD 8 TO 12 YEARS. 



Breakfast: 

Oatmeal mush, iX oz. dry cereal. 

Top milk, 6 oz. 

Stewed prunes, 6 or 7. 

Toast, 2 slices. 

Milk to drink, 6 oz. 
Luncheon : 

Pea soup, 1 cup. 

Boiled onions, 2 small. 

Baked potato, 1 large. 



Luncheon — Continued. 

Bread and butter, 2 slices bread. 

Molasses cookies, 3 cookies. 
Dinner: 

Baked haddock, small serving. 

Creamed baked potato, % cup. 

Spinach, y£ cup. 

Bread and butter, 2 slices. 

Rice pudding — milk and sugar, 
cup. 



Substitutes. 

For rolled oats: Other cereals thoroughly cooked. 

For haddock: Rare beefsteak, roast beef, or mutton chops; other fish, especially 
white varieties. 

For prunes: Any mild ripe fruit uncooked or cooked. 
For onions: String beans, stewed celery, beets, squash. 
Peas or spinach : Turnips or cauliflower. 

Suggestive dietary for child who will not drink milk : 



age 5. 
(1 quart of milk incorporated in the menu.) 



Breakfast, J a. m.: 

Oatmeal, % cup cereal cooked in 1 

cup milk. 
Creamy egg on toast, 1 egg yolk with 

Yt slice bread and X cup milk. 
Cocoa, 1 teaspoon cocoa and % cup 

milk. 
10 a. m.: 

Zwiebach and cream, 1 piece zwie- 

bach and 1 tablespoon cream. 



i.jo p. m.: 

Spinach soup, 4 oz. 

Baked potato with cream, 1 potato 
and 2 tablespoons cream. 

Bread and butter, 1 slice. 

Caramel junket, 1% cups. 
5.30 p. m.: 

Rice and prunes, 2 tablespoons rice 
cooked in ]4. cup milk and 5 prunes. 

Zwiebach, 1 slice. 



HOW TO BUY. 

First decide how to divide your money. 

It is much cheaper to buy in quantities all foods which will keep. 

Buy fresh things in season. Keep your eyes open and you can often 
find fresh fruits and vegetables for little money. 

Buy clean milk. 

Cheaper cuts of meat may be made tender by long slow cooking and 
are just as nutritious as expensive cuts. 

Beef dripping, the fat from roasting or frying, nicely seasoned, makes 
a good fat to take the place of more expensive ones. 

It is not necessary to buy large quantities of meat if you plan to spread 
the flavor through vegetables or any mixture. 



student's textbook. 113 

HOW TO COOK THE FOOD. 

(a) Eggs. — Food containing much egg should be cooked at low tempera- 
ture, so that it will not be tough and hard to digest. 

For soft-cooked eggs, one of the best methods is to drop eggs in boiling 
water in a small saucepan (one small cup of boiling water to each egg) 
and remove from stove. In from 6 to 8 minutes they are ready to eat. 
The utensil should be small enough so water covers the number of eggs 
cooked. 

In custards the eggs should be thoroughly mixed but not beaten light; 
the sugar and salt added to them, then the scalded milk added gradually. 
All custards must be cooked at a moderate temperature. Soft custards 
should be cooked in a double boiler, or in a saucepan set in simmering 
water. Stir all the time it is cooking. When cooked it will be thickened, 
will coat the spoon, and no bubbles will be seen on the top. Take off as 
soon as done or it will curdle. If it does curdle, place the saucepan in a 
pan of cold water and beat the custard with a wheel egg beater until 
smooth. All custards should be strained, cup custards before baking, 
and soft custards after cooking. 

(b) Cereals. — To boiling salted water (one teaspoon of salt to each cup 
of cereal) add slowly the cereal and cook over direct heat until it thickens 
(about 15 minutes), then continue cooking over boiling water until 
thoroughly cooked — the time depending on the cereal. It may be 
cooked over night. Cook one, two, or more hours. Oatmeal and corn 
meal contain more fat than other grains and are good winter foods. 
Rice contains more starch and less fat. 

Amounts: A general rule is two and a. half times as much water as 
grain, and one teaspoon salt for every quart of water. 

Chopped dates, figs, prunes, etc., may be added, to give variety or to 
serve cold as dessert. 

(c) Vegetables. — Select vegetables of the same size, sound and firm. 
They are better when free from green spots or brown blight and have but 
few bruised leaves. 

If in pods, the pods should be crisp and easily snapped or well filled 
with tender seeds. 

Leaves and stalks should be crisp, tender, and juicy. 

Wilted vegetables may sometimes be freshened by soaking or sprin- 
kling with cold water some time before cooking. Summer vegetables 
when fresh do not require soaking in cold water, and it is better to prepare 
them just at the time you are ready to cook them. 

Clean all vegetables before cooking. 

Some of the best part is lost when vegetables are cooked in much water. 
You lose less of their value when you you bake or steam them. 

If cooked in water, all green above-ground vegetables, such as aspara- 
gus, should be cooked in boiling salted water, uncovered to keep their 
42783°— 21 8 



ii 4 



student's textbook. 



color. Allow one level tablespoon of salt to each quart of water. This 
is true of all but peas and beans, which should not be salted until nearly 
tender, for salting hardens them. 

Underground vegetables should be cooked in boiling salted water and 
kept nearly covered. The water should be boiling when they are put in. 
Strong-smelling vegetables, like cabbage, onions, cauliflower, and turnips, 
are not so offensive if cooked uncovered. Drain all vegetables as soon 
as tender. 

As vegetables have no fat they need some added when served, unless 
they are cooked with fat meat ; most vegetables may be served plain with 
butter, salt, and pepper, or with white sauce. 

Cold vegetables may be used in soups or browned in a baking dish 
in a hot oven if one-half the quantity of white sauce, covered with crumbs, 
to which a little butterine or drippings has been added, is also used. 

When canned vegetables are used, empty the can as soon as opened, 
and let the vegetables stand some time to air. Beans, peas, asparagus, 
etc., should be drained and rinsed in cold water. 

When dried vegetables are used, soak in cold water several hours 
before cooking. 

Do not make a habit of buying many foods already prepared, for in 
paying for them you must pay not only the price of the food, but for the 
cost of production, which includes the labor and manufacturer's profit. 
You can do the labor much cheaper yourself. Experiments have proved 
that by cooking 10 cents' worth of dried beans at home almost three times 
the quantity is secured as you get from a io-cent can of beans. 

Time table for cooking vegetables in water: 



Asparagus: 

Young 20 to 30 minutes 

Old 30 to 60 minutes 

Beans: 

String 1 to 2 hours 

Shelled i>£ to 2 hours 

Lima 1 hour or more 

Beets: 

Young 30 to 50 minutes 

Old 3 to 4 hours 

Cabbage : 

New 30 minutes 

Old 2 to 2% hours 

Cauliflower. 20 to 45 minutes 



Green corn 12 to 20 minutes 

Carrots 35 to 45 minutes 

Celery 20 to 30 minutes 

Onions 45 to 60 minutes 

Parsnips 30 to 45 minutes 

Potatoes 25 to 40 minutes 

Potatoes (sweet). 30 to 50 minutes 

Green peas 30 to 45 minutes 

Rice 20 to 45 minutes 

Squash: 

Summer 20 to 50 minutes 

Winter 1 to z}4 hours 

Turnips 40 to 60 minutes 

Macaroni 45 to 60 minutes 



(d) How to cook meat — Wrappings should be removed as soon as meat 
is received from market, because they absorb some of the meat juices. 
It should be kept in a cool place, but not placed directly on the ice. 
Wipe with a clean damp cloth before cooking. 

To keep in the juices and keep the flavor in the meat, sear it on both 
sides, that is press it down quickly in a hot pan, then turn it and sear 



student's textbook. 115 

other side. When it has turned a whitish color, a coating is formed 
which keeps in the juice. Finish cooking it slowly on a low fire. 

Tough meat requires long cooking and must be stewed or boiled. It 
must be cooked by putting on in cold water, bring quickly to boiling 
point, then cook slowly, a long time in a covered kettle, so as to become 
tender. Tough cuts properly cooked have a very high food value. 

For pot roast, put meat into boiling water, then let it simmer. Do 
not add salt to raw meat, for it draws out the juice. 

To draw out the juice, as for soups and broths, always use cold water. 
Crack the bones and cut the meat into small pieces so the juices will 
escape easily. Bring slowly to boiling point and cook very slowly for 
a long time, and keep the kettle closely covered to keep in the steam. 

Vegetables may be added if desired. 

Beef and mutton are the best meats for all persons. Pork, liver, 
heart, and kidney should not be given to young children nor people 
that are not well. 

Tender cuts of meat may be broiled by exposing them to a very hot 
heat, first searing then turning often while cooking. 

When food is browned in a frying pan, be careful to have the pan 
just oiled and no loose grease, and to see that it is sizzling hot before the 
food goes in if you do not want it soaked with grease and therefore 
harmful. 

Left overs. — No food, no matter how little, need be wasted. Some 
housewives have a habit of throwing away portions of food because not 
enough remains for another meal. Many attractive and desirable dishes 
may be made if one does a little thinking and planning. Small portions 
of different foods, that will blend well, may be combined to make a 
large dish. 

Tougher portions of roasts, chops, etc., should be cooked slowly until 
tender, in only enough water to cover; then cut fine and use in scalloped 
dishes, hash, croquettes, cottage pies, or warmed over in brown sauce 
or gravy. 

Potatoes combine well with beef or fish. 

Rice, macaroni, oysters, and bread crumbs go well with chicken, veal, 
or mutton. 

Onions and tomatoes may be added to many meats. 

White sauce combines best with light meats, while brown gravies are 
better for dark meats. 

All raw or cooked bones and trimmings from roasts and steaks, bits of 
any vegetables, parsley, etc., may be combined with the water in which 
meat or vegetables have been cooked to make stock for sauces and soups. 
A little grated onion and carrot boiled in water in which meat has been 
cooked makes a good soup. 

Hash makes an ageeable dish if well prepared. Use twice as much 
chopped or mashed potato as meat, or equal parts of each, season with 



Il6 student's textbook. 

salt and pepper, just moisten with milk, water, or stock. This may be 
placed in a buttered pan and baked or may be spread evenly in a frying 
pan in which has been melted a tablespoonf ul of fat for each cup of hash. 
If cooked slowly for about 20 minutes it will be nicely browned. 

Croquettes are made from almost any food material. They are rolled 
in egg and crumbs and fried in deep fat. A very thick sauce is added to 
meat or fish; sometimes egg is also added. When made of vegetables, 
egg alone is used to hold them in shape. Sometimes croquettes are made 
of both meat and vegetables, and frequently two or three kinds of both 
meat and vegetables are combined. They must be well seasoned. 
Celery salt goes well with veal and chicken; lemon juice with fish; 
cheese with macaroni and rice. Even meat which has become tasteless 
because its juices have been drawn out in stews and bouillon, may be 
made savory by the addition of tomato sauce and onion. 

Another way of using left overs of meat, vegetables, or fruit is to serve 
as salads when cold, mixed with suitable dressings, French mayonnaise, 
boiled salad dressing, or cream dressing. 

Pieces of bread and crusts left should be placed in a pan and set in a 
warm place to dry slowly, after which they are ready to use as bread 
crumbs. 

Cake and cooky pieces should also be dried and used in making desserts 
as one can do with small amounts of preserves, jellies, or canned fruits. 

Dried bits of cheese may be chopped or grated to add to cereals, 
omelets, souffles. Souffles are made by adding creamed meat to puffy 
omelet, or vegetables moistened with milk before folding in the beaten 
eggs. 

Fireless cooker. — Things that are usually cooked for some time in 
water may be cooked without using much fire if a fireless cooker is used. 
A fireless cooker is a great help to the busy housewife, as it saves her 
time and attention. Foods are not so apt to be overcooked and burned 
and hot foods are ready when wanted, even if she has been out two or 
three hours before meal time. 

To make one place some kind of packing — such as hay, excelsior, 
sawdust, ground cork, newspapers, wool, or cotton batting — in a box 
and pack about 3 or 4 inches firmly in the bottom. Place a large pail 
in the center, then place packing all around that, even with the top. 
The pail should have a tight cover. A pillow or cushion filled with pack- 
ing should be made to cover it all, and the cooker is finished. 

One or two shallow dishes, with or without covers, can be placed in 
the pail, supported by a wire stand, so that the cooker can be used for 
several things at the same time. 

In use, all foods are first cooked on the stove until thoroughly heated 
through; 10 minutes is enough for small vegetables and grains, but for 
large pieces of meat half an hour is needed. The food must be actually 
at boiling point all the way through when put into the cooker. 



student's textbook. 117 

Very small quantities will not keep the heat, so do not try using it for 
small amounts. Covers of utensils must fit tight and not be lifted after 
taking away from the heat. The food must be put in cooker as soon as 
taken from the fire and left until done. No peeping to see if it is cooked 
or cold air will get in. If it is once opened it must again be heated to 
boiling point. You will need to experiment a little in using the cooker 
to find out just how long it takes to cook in the kind you have made. 
Steamed breads, puddings, cereals, stews, beans, soups, ham, or poultry 
are often cooked in cookers. Beef, lamb, and chicken, which are usually 
roasted, may be begun in the cooker and browned in the oven a few 
minutes before serving. 

When very long cooking is necessary it is sometimes wise to reheat to 
boiling point three or four hours after the first heating. When food is, 
left in the cooker overnight it will likely need heating before serving. 
Meat should not be kept in the cooker too long, as the warm temperature 
may spoil it. 

The cooker will also keep food cold. Ice cream may be set in the 
cooker, closely covered, and it will keep frozen for some time without ice. 

If you have steam radiators in your house and there is a steady heat 
all day you can make use of that heat for such dishes as baked beans, 
stews, baked apple sauce, rice pudding. Start them on the stove early 
in the morning, cover tightly. Set the pan on the radiator and pack 
papers and blankets all around it so as to keep in the heat, and by supper 
time your food will be cooked. 

Use of gas for cooking. — If you use gas for cooking see that it burns 
with a blue flame. If it is yellow the flame is too high or the burner is 
clogged and not enough air is supplied. It then smokes and wastes gas 
besides giving little heat. Do not keep it turned on full after things have 
commenced to boil. It can be turned much lower without stopping the 
boiling. 

Care of refrigerator. — Keep clean; let no spilled food remain on 
shelves; never put hot food into the refrigerator; no strong-smelling 
food should be kept there; greens should be wrapped in a cloth and 
placed on the ice; keep milk and butter in covered utensils and stand 
near the ice. Keep the refrigerator shut tight. Do not allow the doors 
to stand open, as warm air wastes the ice. 

Clean the drainpipe once a week and wash the inside with sodawater 
solution, then rinse with hot, followed by cold, water. 

Care of dish closets and drawers. — Keep dishes of one kind together, 
each in its own place. Scrub or wipe the shelves often. Keep drawers 
for towels, cloths, and soiled linen in order. Towels and dishcloths 
should be washed daily and hung in the fresh air to dry. Never allow 
them to dry without at least rinsing, if you wish them sweet for the 
next using. 

Dust cloths should be soaked and washed in soapy water. 



Il8 student's textbook. 

Dish washing. — Before washing dishes put away all food, clean the 
dishes, scrape and rinse dirty dishes, and pile all of one kind together. 
All dishes used for eggs, milk, and starchy food should be soaked in cold 
water. All those used for sugary, sticky, and greasy foods in hot water. 

Wash cleanest things first — glasses, silver, china — then wash sauce- 
pans and all cooking utensils in clean water. Use hot, soapy water 
and rinse dishes in clear, hot water. 

Garbage. — If you use a coal range, most garbage may be burned. 
Place it in the space above the oven and it will soon be ashes, if the 
draft is open. If it must be placed in a garbage pail, first wrap in paper 
or line the pail with several thicknesses of paper. Keep the pail clean 
by washing it every time it is emptied. 

The sink. — Try to keep it free from grease and scraps of food. Do 
not try to wash particles into the pipe. They do not belong there and 
may cause trouble. Keep the sink clean by washing in hot, soapy 
water. Clean back of sink pipes and keep the edges clean. Often pour 
boiling water down the pipe. 

Occasionally pour a hot solution of sal soda down the pipe to cut the 
grease, but be sure to follow it with a lot of boiling water, or the soda 
and grease will combine into a soap and clog the pipe. 

Table manners. — Spread the napkin across the lap. Do not talk with 
food in the mouth. Keep the spoon in the saucer, not in the cup. Do 
not make a noise chewing nor smack the lips nor drink noisily. Dip 
a soup spoon into a plate from you instead of toward you, and take the 
soup quietly from the side of the spoon. It looks greedy to tip the 
soup plate. 

Do not bite into slices of bread or rolls. Break off a small piece and 
eat separately. Spread with butter as needed. 

Lay the knife and fork straight on one side of the plate when not in use. 

Do not play with things on table. Keep your hands in the lap when 
not eating. 

When you have finished, carefully fold the napkin. 

Much information and many good recipes may be learned from the 
Farmers' Bulletins, published by the United States Department of 
Agriculture at Washington, D. C. They are obtained free for the 
asking. Write a letter asking for the numbers you would like to have. 

The following are particularly desirable for housewives : 

No. 298. The Fireless Cooker. 

No. 342. The Model Kitchen. 

No. 353. The Ice Box. (Office of Experiment Station Bulletin.) 

No. 203. Canning Fruits, Preserves, and Jellies. 

No. 388. Jelly and Jelly Making. 

No. 73. Cooking Vegetables. 

No. 256. Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. 

No. 342. Cooking Beans and Other Vegetables in the Home. 

No. 316. Cooking Cereal Foods. 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 119 

No. 42. Facts About Milk. 

No. 363. Use of Milk as Food. 

No. 413. The Care of Milk and its Use in the Home. 

No. 87. Food Value of Eggs. 

No. 103. Preserving Eggs. 

No. 190. Cost of Eggs in Winter. 

No. 34. Composition and Cooking of Meat 

No. 162. Cooking Meat. 

No. 193. Cooking Meat. 

No. 391. Economical Use of Meat in the Home. 

No. 112. Bread and Bread Making. 

No. 3. Daily Meals for School Children. 

No. 375. Care of Food in the Home. 

No. 717. Food for Young Children. 

No. 712. School Lunches. 

No. 5. The Carpet Beetle or Buffalo Moth. 

No. 34. House Ants. 

No. 36. The True Cloches Moth. 

No. 47- The Bedbug. 

No. 51. Cockroaches. 

No. 71. House Flies. 

No. 412. The Typhoid or House Fly. 

Cleaning. — Pure air and sunlight aid the housewife in keeping homes 
sanitary. Germs grow much more rapidly in darkened damp places, 
and find it hard to live in bright, clean, sunshiny places, so let into your 
houses as much direct sunshine as possible, for it will help to show you 
where dirt has collected and destroy many germs which might cause 
illness, and it will dry up the moisture which disease germs need for growth. 

It is much easier to prevent dirt from collecting than it is to remove it. 
"One keep clean is worth a dozen make cleans" is an old adage we have 
all heard. Keep the house well ventilated, especially when cooking, 
and the smoke and oily vapors will be blown out and not deposit them- 
selves on the walls, woodwork, and furniture in the house. 

If one can not afford some of the devices like washers, vacuum cleaners, 
etc., which make housework easier in these days, one can at least use 
old methods the best way. 

Sweeping. — When sweeping use alternate sides and corners of the 
broom, so that it will wear evenly, taking care to keep it close to the 
floor and to use short strokes. This will carry the dirt along without 
scattering it in the air. If possible, burn the dirt immediately in the 
stove, opening the damper so smoke and odor wiM not escape in the 
house. If it can not be burned in heater or range, place it in the trash box. 

If the housekeeper leUrns how to sweep by taking up dust and holding 
it, not scattering it, and will provide herself with dust covers — old sheets 
or cheap muslin, or cheesecloth — and use them to cover articles dusted 
before sweeping, it will not bte necessary to remove furniture from one 
room to another when cleaning day comes. All that is "necessary is to 
move things just enough to allow sweeping where they stood. Brush 
the upholstered furniture thoroughly before covering, wipe back of 



120 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

pictures with a cloth, and dust the walls with a very soft clean brush 
or a broom covered with a soft cotton bag. Use dustcloths of soft 
materials which do not shed lint, and fold the dust in, using clean ones 
as soon as soiled. 

Dampened newspapers may be placed on the floor so as to catch and 
hold the dust swept toward them. Finally, dust all things which have 
been exposed to the necessary dust, then wash the dustcloths. Wood- 
work if dusted carefully daily will not need cleaning very often. 

When house-cleaning time comes, a little extra work is needed to care 
for some of the things that a busy housekeeper can not do daily. 

To clean paints, wash with warm water and a little soap, and use a 
paint brush and some sharp-pointed instrument like an ice pick or skewer 
to clean out the corners. Never have cloth wet enough to allow water 
to run or stand in drops on the surface. Rinse, then dry with a cotton 
cloth, rubbing hard until dry. Remember, you can not clean with dirty 
water. 

Pa»:nted walls may be cleaned with water containing a little ammonia. 

Floors. — Do not walk through crumbs or dirt of any kind spilled on 
the floor — you scatter it. When grease is spilled, cold water poured on 
it will harden it so that you can scrape most of it off — or starch or borax 
will absorb it. It is best to wipe up at once, using hot water and soap. 

Hardwood floors, oil finished, may be cleaned with kerosene which 
slightly moistens a cloth. When clean, the floor should be rubbed dry 
with a clean cloth. 

Softwood floors must be scrubbed with soap and hot water. Frequent 
moppings with very hot, sudsy water will keep the floor in a condition 
that will not need hard scrubbing. Scrub or mop, then rinse, then dry 
small sections of the room at a time, and try to plan the work so you 
will not need to tramp over the wet parts of the floor, for trackings will 
show after drying. 

Glass. — When dusting windows, mirrors, and glass in pictures wipe 
with up and down or side to side strokes, not round and round. When 
they need washing, first remove dust, then wash with hot ammonia water, 
then clear hot water, then rub dry. Whiting paste may be rubbed on 
windows streaked after a rain, and after drying be removed by rubbing 
with a clean cloth. If you wish to avoid streaky windows, be sure that 
the washing is not done while the sun shines on them. 

Leather. — Wipe with a damp cloth or use a little kerosene. Good 
oil well rubbed in occasionally will keep it soft and glossy. 

Marble. — No acid, not even fruit juices, should touch marble. It 
may be scoured with fine sand soap or powdered pumice, or it may be 
covered with a mixture of turpentine and whiting, which is brushed off 
after drying. 

Metals. — Nearly all metals may be washed. Stoves and sinks may 
be scoured with coarse materials like ashes or pumice, but copper, steel, 
tin, silver, and zinc require a finer powder which will not scratch nor 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. . 121 

wear them away too rapidly. Whiting and ammonia will keep metal 
bathtubs clean if rinsed with boiling water and wiped dry with a soft cloth. 

Emergencies. — When accidents happen, be calm; if serious send for a 
doctor, and in the meantime make patient as comfortable as possible. 

Bleeding. — Raise as high as possible the bleeding part of the body and 
apply pressure on the wound as it will keep more blood in other parts 
of the body. Ice helps to make the blood thicken so it will not flow so 
easily. When a person has a bad nosebleed if ice or very cold cloths are 
placed at the back of his neck and over the bridge of his nose or on the 
forehead, it will help to thicken the blood there. A teaspoonful of 
alum or of salt in a cup of water snuffed up the nose will help sometimes. 

Cuts. — First, stop the bleeding; try pressing on the wound. Second, 
apply something to wash away germs, some antiseptic like hydrogen 
peroxide or boric acid, then cover with clean gauze wet with the solution 
and bind with a clean gauze. 

Bruises. — When skin is broken, treat as for cuts. When skin is not 
broken apply cloths wrung out in hot water ; this keeps the blood flowing. 

Burns. — Fire can not live without air, so wrap the burn so as to shut 
out air. If a person's body is on fire wrap with a woolen rug or blanket, 
from head to the feet. If wrapped any other way the flames would 
shoot up to the face. Flames always go up, not down, so the best way 
is to stretch out on the floor and roll up in a rug or blanket. Do not 
use cotton things to wrap up in for they burn very readily. Air may be 
kept away from a burn on the hand or foot by placing it in warm water, 
but it must be held there sometimes a long time. Another way is to 
make a paste of baking soda or boric acid and spread over the burn. 

When the skin is broken in a burn, oil should be used. Cover with 
oil and wrap in soft cloths soaked in oil. Carron oil, which is made of 
equal parts of olive oil and lime water, or of linseed oil and lime water, 
is the best oil to use. Keep a bottle ready mixed. If as much as two- 
thirds of the body is burned, the accident will probably prove fatal. 

Blisters should not be touched for 24 hours, then they should be 
drained, which may be done by snipping the center of the blister with 
sharp scissors, pressing against the sides, then dressed with oil. 

Sunburn is treated like any other burn. 

Sprains. — Place the sprained part under a cold-water faucet. Change 
to very hot (not merely warm). Alternate hot and cold applications 
will make the blood keep flowing. Hold the injured part as high as pos- 
sible so the blood will flow away from it. Bandage so the pressure 
comes on the soft parts for they will fill up with blood and lymph. Re- 
bandage daily and rub joint each time. 

Faint — Stretch patient out flat and raise feet higher than head; 
loosen tight clothing; wipe face with cold water. 

Hiccough. — Stop both ears with fingers. Drink water slowly from 
a cup which some one else holds, or make yourself sneeze by scattering 
a few grains of pepper in the air. 



122 



student's textbook. 



Ivy poison. — Ivy poison causes itching, red, swollen, and blistered 
skin. One feels the effect some time between four hours and four days 
after exposure. The poisoning comes from a gummy oil in the plant. 
Wash the skin with plenty of soap and hot water to take off the oil. 
The washing must be thorough or it will only spread the infection. Al- 
cohol will dissolve the oil, so it helps to bathe the parts frequently in 
alcohol. Sugar of lead (lead acetate) dissolved in alcohol and water, 
half and half, is a good remedy, but care must be taken in its use, for 
it is also a poison. 

Careful soap-and-water washings after being near poison ivy will pre- 
vent poison if done promptly. 

Poisons swallowed. — First, send for the doctor; second, try to remove 
the poison from the stomach. This may be done by tickling the throat 
with the finger or a feather, or by giving an emetic — something which 
will make the stomach throw up its contents; e. g., one tablespoon of 
alum or mustard, or two tablespoons of salt in a tumbler of lukewarm 
water. Make the patient drink until he vomits. If none of these emetics 
are at hand the patient should drink water right away. 

If the poison is from an acid or an alkali it must be neutralized. When 
soda, which is alkaline, is added to vinegar, which is acid, the vinegar 
froths and soon loses its sour taste. It is then neutralized. The same 
thing will happen in the stomach if a person who has swallowed a poison- 
ous acid should drink some kind of alkali. If he has taken an alkali he 
should drink an acid. When the alkali and the acid become rightly 
balanced they become neutral and are not so harmful. Then mix whites 
of four eggs with a quart of water and drink as much as possible. A 
good dose of oil should be taken afterwards to get the mixture out of 
the system. 

Treatment for poisons. 
[Some from Literary Digest, March 25, 1916, and Emergencies, by Gulick.] 



Poison. 


Treatment. 


ACIDS: 


] 




1 An alkali, such as baking soda in water or lime water to drink, 








J 


ALKALIES: 


Do not give emetics. Give some mild acid, as vinegar in water. 
> or lemon juice and follow with olive oil (K pint to 1 pint of 
water) or with white of egg. 




Potash 




ARSENIC: 

Rough on rats 


\ Give emetic promptly. Follow with milk and white of eggs 
J or olive oil. 


CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE: 


I Give large quantities of milk before giving emetics. After this 




> has been given empty the stomach thoroughly. White of 




Emetic, Epsom salts. 


OPIUM: 


1 Emetic. Strong black coffee. Keep patient warm and awake 
> until doctor comes. Under no circumstances should he be 








allowed to relax into a stupor. 







student's textbook. 123 

Concerning clothing and economy. — Besides taking care of health by 
knowing what to eat, we must know what to wear. Slovenly dressed 
women have no self-respect. A well-dressed woman never attracts 
attention to herself by the color or cut of her clothes. She knows what 
to omit from her costume. Just because she owns some articles of 
adornment she does not put them on every time she goes out. Party 
gowns do not make good street gowns. 

Clothes made of coarse material and covered with lace and embroidery 
to imitate more expensive ones are in bad taste. Simple clean neat 
clothing, appropriate to time and place, cultivate self-respect. 

In selecting materials and styles, decide first whether they are suitable 
and economical for all the times you expect to wear them and choose 
only those for which you feel a need. 

Women should know enough about textiles to be able to buy intelli- 
gently the materials used in the homes for clothing and furnishing. They 
can be efficient wage spenders by making each dollar produce full value. 
True economy is spending one's money wisely. The high cost of living 
can not be blamed for buying unreliable materials. If women really 
knew how to judge the quality of fabrics the merchants could not sell 
them poor stock. 

There are times when it pays to buy the best materials, but sometimes 
it is cheapest to buy inexpensive ones. For instance, if a child will 
outgrow garments before they are worn out and they can not be passed 
on to another in the family, it is cheaper to purchase the poorer quality, 
but you should know which you are securing. Do not pay for good 
fabrics and find that you have poor. You pay a good price for good 
materials, and they wear well if well taken care of. You can not afford 
to buy imitation goods thinking you are buying the real thing. You 
want to get what you think you are getting. When you want a cheap 
material which you know will not wear a long time you should see that 
you are charged the price that is right for it. 

Learn as much as you can about the feel of fabrics; if too slippery, 
cotton goods will be flimsy after washing. Look out for too much 
starch, which is put in to give body; scratch the cloth with the finger 
nail and rub in the hands. Handle with black gloves; when rubbed, 
the white filling will show on the gloves. If too much stiffening is used, 
wrinkles will not smooth out. 

Beware of woolen goods that tear easily. Rub your fingers against 
the nap ; if fibers come up in woolly fuzz, the cloth will wear rough in a 
short time. 

Beware of materials which seem too good for the price asked. 

Linen should not be stiff and crackly; it has a smooth surface and 
should not become fuzzy when rubbed between the fingers. If it does f 
it likely has cotton mixed with it. 



124 student's textbook. 

If you want to become a better judge of fabrics, examine samples of 
standard weaves, then compare them with cheaper ones. 

The following are a few tests which will help you to decide about 
materials. 

i. If you ravel the threads of material, then pull apart — 

Cotton fibers are short and the ends fuzzy. 

Wool is kinky and stiff 

Silk fibers are long, straight, and shiny if of good silk. 

Linen is strong and long, ends are uneven when broken and more 
pointed than cotton. 

2. Burning tests. — Wool and silk threads when burned smell like 
burned hair or feathers, and they burn rather slowly and leave a gummy 
ash. Cotton and linen threads burn quickly with a flame and leave but 
little ash. The cotton ends spread like a paint brush. The linen ends 
stay together. 

3. Acid test. — Dip a piece of material in moderately strong nitric 
acid. Wool and silk turn yellow. (If ammonia is added the yellow 
changes to orange.) Cotton and linen will not be colored but slowly 
dissolved if the acid is hot. 

4. Alkali test. — Boil samples ten or fifteen minutes in a lye solution 
(1 tablespoon Babbitt's lye in a cup of water). Wool and silk will be 
destroyed. Cotton and linen will remain. 

5. Tearing test. — Linen quickly torn leaves straight smooth threads 
along the edge of the tear. Cotton will curl up. 

To be economical. — First of all, know how much you can spend and 
what you want before going to the store. Know how long you expect 
it to last. Select the best material for the purpose wanted. Know the 
least amount it will take. Do not depend on clerks to tell you how 
much to buy. Know what materials and colors wear best. 

Care of clothing. — If you really want to be economical take good care 
of your clothing by keeping things neat and clean, brush outer clothing 
when taken off. Air before putting away. Hang up or fold carefully 
to put away. Wash out stains and remove spots. Keep pressed. 
Keep mended. Sew on all loose fastenings. Hang clothes on hangers. 

You can not be a self-respecting citizen if you wear soiled, untidy 
clothing, nor will your health be good. 

Cleaning fabrics. — A. Washing white clothes: 

1 . Remove stains. 

(a) Blood stains : Wash in cold water until stains turn brown, then rub 
with soap and wash in warm water. A little ammonia added helps. 

(b) Coffee: Spread stain over a bowl and pour boiling water on it. 

(c) Fruit: Same as coffee. 

(d) Grass: Naphtha soap and warm water, or ammonia and water if 
used at once, if not on delicate colors. If color may be changed use 



student's textbook. 125 

molasses or a paste of soap and cooking soda spread on stain and allowed 
to stand several hours. Alcohol may be used for materials which can not 
be washed. 

(e) Iron rust: Sprinkle with salt and moisten with lemon juice, then 
lay in the sun. This takes time and will not injure the material, but it 
will take out color. 

(/) Mildew: Put on lemon juice and let stand in sun, or cover with a 
paste made of soft soap, 1 tablespoon of powdered starch, juice of a lemon 
and salt, and allow to stand 48 hours. 

(g) Scorch : Place in sunshine. 

(h) Vaseline : A fresh stain can be removed with turpentine. 

2. Sort clothes. 

3. Soak. They are then easier to wash for the dirt is loosened. 

4. Wash. 

5. Rinse. 

6. Boil a few minutes in soapy water. 

7. Rinse. 

8. Blue. 

9. Starch, if necessary. 

10. Hang out to dry. 

1 1 . Sprinkle and fold. 

12. Iron. 

B. To wash woolen materials: "Wash one piece at a time. Do not boil 
or rub and use no dirty water. Be sure the washing and rinsing waters 
are all the same temperature. Squeeze as dry as possible, but do not 
twist ; do not hang near the fire to dry if you want to prevent shrinking. 

C. Colored clothes must not be soaked; set the color by rinsing in water 
containing salt or vinegar; wash quickly in clear water not too hot; use 
little soap. They must not be boiled. If starched, turn wrong side out. 
Hang in shade to dry. ' 

D. Laces look much better if fastened to a pillow or padding by pinning 
every point down after washing in soapy water and rinsing. 

K. Silk, undyed. Soak in cold water; wash in soap lather; rinse; 
wrap in a soft cloth and press as dry as possible with the hands; iron 
while still damp. To iron, cover with a thin smooth cloth; run iron 
over lightly at first, then iron until dry. 

F. To steam velvet, place a wet cloth over the flat surface of an 
inverted hot iron and lay the wrong side of the velvet next the wet 
cloth; then draw the velvet back and forth, and have a helper brush it 
with a soft brush, brushing against the nap. 

G. Between seasons carefully clean, repair, and put away clothing. 
Camphor and tar are often used to keep out moths, but if garments are 
carefully cleaned, well wrapped in newspapers, and then put in sealed 
boxes they are safe without them. 



126 STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 

Repairing. — Garments kept in repair last much longer than those that 
are not. 

(a) Darning is a method of mending in which new threads are woven 
into a hole or a place worn thin by rubbing. Try to make the weaving 
as much like the weaving of the fabric as possible. When darning a 
tear in a dress use a thread of the material for mending, if possible. 

In any kind of darning be sure the mending thread extends far enough 
beyond the edge of the hole to prevent pulling out. See that every 
other mending thread goes under the edge of the hole, the alternating 
ones going over. 

(Jo) Patching is another method of mending. It is putting into a hole 
a piece like the cloth worn away. A square patch replacing a worn 
part of a garment, if the pattern matches, will not show as much as a 
round or an irregular one. Shrink your new piece before using it and 
match in color and texture the garment to be mended. If the garment 
is old, worth little trouble, and* is not often laundered, the right side of 
the garment may be hemmed to the patch. If it is good material, and 
the mend must be as little noticed as possible, cut the patch the exact 
size of the hole and use fine darning to hold it in place. When materials 
to be patched must be laundered often, the best method is to cover the 
hole and worn parts with a patch (matching pattern, if any). This is 
hemmed to the garment on one side, and the edges of the garment 
trimmed in straight lines, folded in, and hemmed to the patch on the 
other. Irregular edges are sometimes left on wool material and darned 
down to the patch. 

In all patching the mending should show as little as possible ; therefore 
use mending material matching that to be mended. 

Making new clothes. — After you have selected your material comes the 
making into garments. 

Garments made at home are usually better than ready-made. Those 
requiring much laundering should be sewed with the edges hidden and 
have little trimming. Cotton crape, which washes well, does not need 
ironing. Long cloth and muslin both wear well. If trimmed with simple 
stitches instead of lace and embroidery, the cost will be less and the 
work required to iron them will be much less. The French seam — a 
seam within a seam — is used on long seams of nightgowns, petticoats, 
sleeves, and thin shirt waists. It is made by making a seam first on the 
right side of the garment, then trimming and bringing the two right 
sides together so the first seam comes on the edge, and the stitching just 
far enough from the edge to take in the raw edges. 

The fell, or flat seam, is used on drawers, corset covers, tailored shirt 
waists, and shirts. This is also a twice-sewed seam, but the first seans 
is stitched on the wrong side of the garment, about three-eighths of am 
inch from the edge. Then one edge is trimmed to one-eighth of an inch, 
the wide edge folded over the narrow, and folded flat to the cloth. The 



student's textbook. 127 

fold is hemmed or stitched. In men's shirts, tailored waists, and middy- 
blouses this entire fell is usually made on the right side of the garment. 

Seams made in either of the above ways in flannel would be too thick, 
so for the flannel seam a plain seam is made, the edges pressed open and 
catch stitched down flat to the cloth. The flannel fell is made by trim- 
ming one edge of the plain seam and catch stitching the wide edge over 
the narrow, flat to the cloth. 

The following are recommended for the study of detailed directions 
for methods in making stitches, seams, mending, etc. : "A Sewing Course," 
Mary S. Woolman; "School Needlework," A. Hapgood; "The Sewing 
Book," Butterick Publishing Co. ; "Clothing for Women," Laura I. Baldt. 

Patterns. — Select styles becoming to you. In these days commercial 
patterns are easily secured at little price and, after one learns how to 
use them, the same pattern may be used for several kinds of garments 
with but few changes. 

Before cutting into material, first lay all the pieces on the material, 
being sure to have the nap, if any, run toward the bottom of the gar- 
ment, or that the flowers all run one way. If there is a right and wrong 
side, be sure not to cut the parts for one side only. It usually takes 
more material to cut garments from material having figures and a right 
and wrong side. Follow directions given on pattern and be as saving 
as possible. The length of the material runs from top to bottom of most 
parts of garments. 

Corset covers and nightgowns are easily made from a plain shirt-waist 
pattern which you know is right size. For the corset cover cut out the 
neck about 3^ or4 inches lower and allow about 3 inches, or more if 
desired, on the front for fullness. It may be cut off at waist line and a 
peplum added. 

To cut the nightgown, cut out the neck 3% or 4 inches, and for the 
back allow 2 inches for fullness and add three-fourths of an inch at the 
top of the under-arm seam to make armhole larger. For the front allow 
3 to 4 inches for fullness and add the same amount at the armhole. 
The length desired will equal the distance from top of shoulders to floor 
plus depth of hem. Slope side seams from end of under-arm seam, now 
three-fourths of an inch farther out, to ends of material. If lower end 
of front is pieced, 4 to 5 inches wide, the under-arm seams will hang 
straight; then side seams are made by cutting to lower edge of added 
pieces. The sleeve may be cut from the shirt-waist sleeve, adding an 
inch each side to make wider if desired, and cutting off for the length desired. 

Study your patterns. Patterns usually give but half of each part. 
Notice which parts must be placed on folds of material. Note whether 
your pattern allows for seams or not. Note the markings and what each 
one means on the pattern you are using. These markings look very com- 
plicated to one not used to them, but if you start with an easy pattern, 
one having few pieces, and learn to understand that one, it will not be 



128 student's textbook. 

hard to use patterns of a greater number of parts if you gradually under- 
take harder pieces. 

To alter patterns which do not fit: 

Waist patterns. — If too narrow, cut apart from shoulder to bottom and 
separate enough to add width desired. 

If too wide, take a tuck from shoulder to bottom. A j^-inch tuck 
will make the patten i inch narrower. 

If too short waisted, cut pattern apart 2 or 3 inches above waist line 
and separate required distance. 

If too long waisted, take a tuck half as wide as amount to be shortened. 

Skirts. — Alter below hip line, taking tuck to make shorter or cutting 
apart and separating to make longer. 

Renovating. — If the material is worth it, faded garments or those of a 
color no longer desired may be dyed. They should first be thoroughly 
cleaned and wet before being put into the dye to insure even dyeing. 
Rinse carefully after the material has been in long enough. To be 
successful at dyeing colored materials you must know a little about the 
effect of one color on another. For instance, yellow goods in blue dye 
will turn out green, red in blue dye will give purple. It is best to experi- 
ment first with small pieces. 

A well-dressed business girl wears neat and carefully mended gloves, 
shoes, plain waists and suits, clean underwear and neckwear, neat hats, 
and has neatly dressed hair and clean hands and finger nails. 

Millinery. — A hat is the hardest part of the wardrobe to select. Select 
one when you can see your whole length in a mirror, for it must suit 
your whole figure and not the head alone. Be sure that it is becoming 
and not selected because it is the fashion. Select colors that are becom- 
ing. Large hats are not suitable to be worn with short skirts. 

A few lessons from some one who knows how will give you ideas about 
making and covering the different kinds of frames and making various 
trimmings. One may soon learn to make very attractive bows by doing 
a little practicing in cheap material or soft paper. If you once know 
how to tie a bow knot, any kind of bow can be made, the difference being 
only in the number and length of loops. By making a dozen or more 
loops you will have a rosette. 

After making your trimming, stand before a mirror with the hat on to 
adjust the trimming. Scraps of ribbons and silks may be used for making 
flowers and other fancies for hats. Study the kind you wish and see if 
you can't make it Sew trimmings firmly but with few stitches as possible. 

Old silks, velvets, and flowers can be renovated — silks by washing and 
pressing; velvets by steaming and brushing; and flowers by trimming 
frayed edges and retouching with water colors or oil paint thinned with 
gasoline. 

Old shapes can be changed by cutting away or adding to. Good straws 
can be washed in water and the shape changed while wet by reshaping. 
Light hats may be recolored with dye. 



STUDENT'S TEXTBOOK. 1 29 

HYGIENE AND SANITATION. 
PERSONAL HYGIENE AND NEATNESS. 

Health has been defined as the "perfect circulation of pure blood in a 
sound organism," and in order to be healthy we must know how to be 
careful of our bodies. 

Blood can not be kept pure nor organs sound unless the laws of 
nature are obeyed. 

The health of an adult often depends upon the care received while a 
child, so it is important to know how to care for the little ones and to 
instruct them to care for themselves as they grow to adult life. 

Bathing.— A healthy baby should be bathed every day. This bath is 
continued daily until about the third year, then three or four times each 
week will be sufficient. In hot weather two baths daily are not harmful. 

A bath thermometer should always be used for a baby's bath and the 
water should be at body heat or slightly above; that is, from 98 to 
ioo°. Lacking a thermometer, the water may be tested by the elbow. 
No unnecessary exposure or delay should take place and the bathing 
should be done gently. 

Never bathe within one and one-half hours after feeding time. 

Use a good, pure, white soap and rinse thoroughly. 

Each person in the home should have his own soap, towel, wash cloth, 
toothbrush, and comb, so as to prevent contagion of any skin diseases. 

Hair. — The hair of both children and grown folks should be washed 
at least once a month with tar soap and water. After it has been well 
rinsed in warm water, it is well to spray it with cold water for just an 
instant, to close up the pores and prevent taking cold; then dried in the 
sun if possible. 

Should the head become infested with lice and nits, saturate the hair 
thoroughly with hot vinegar; wrap up for an hour or so; then comb 
with a nne comb. The vinegar not only kills the lice, but makes the 
life of the nit extinct. These nits can be pulled off the hair by separat- 
ing into small strands and using flannel or a piece of a black stocking, 
which readily shows the nits. The cloth used should be burned. 

Teeth. — The teeth of a child should be cared for each day, and when 
small marks of decay appear the child should be taken to the dentist. 
Each child has two sets of teeth. The first set, known as the "milk 
teeth," are replaced, beginning at about the sixth year, by the perma- 
nent or "second" teeth. 

It is believed that the health of the second teeth depends largely upon 
the care that is given the first set. As the baby grows into childhood, 
he should be taught the daily care of his own teeth. They should be 
brushed gently each day with a brush and some harmless tooth powder. 

Sleep, — Babies need more sleep than adults and people who are old 
and feeble need more than those who are strong. 
42783°— 21 9 



130 STUDENTS TEXTBOOK, 

Whenever possible only one person should occupy a bed, and espe- 
cially should this be true with children and invalids. 

A young baby should sleep 20 or 22 hours out of 24, and without a 
pillow. 

Children under 4 years old need to sleep about 12 hours. 

Children under 10 need to sleep about 11 hours. 

Children under 14 need to sleep about 10 hours. 

An adult should have from six to nine hours of sleep. 

Children should have regular hours for sleeping and they should be 
put to bed early. A child 12 years old or younger should be in bed by 
8.30 o'clock, as the growing body and brain need a great deal of rest and 
quiet and should be provided with the most desirable sleeping accommo- 
dations. 

The temperature of the sleeping room should not be over 45 ° or 50 . 
Children should become accustomed to sleeping with the windows open 
even in freezing weather, but should be well screened. 

Personal appearance. — Children should be trained from babyhood into 
daily habits which are conducive to good health and neatness of appear- 
ance. Habits cling to us through life whether we are to blame or not 
for their establishment. The following habits could well be established : 
The daily bath; care of the hair, nails, and teeth; neatness of attire; 
healthful exercise; habits of walks and expression; order, attention, 
kindness, courage, and truthfulness. 

HYGIENE AND NEATNESS OF THE HOME. 

i. Selection of the house. — In selecting a city house there are several 
important things to be considered; especially is this true in homes where 
there are children. 

Living conditions. — In every case the house and its surroundings should 
be carefully inspected as to its sanitary condition. It should be sunny, 
well ventilated, and dry. Tenements with dark rooms are not fit for 
children. Flats and apartments do not usually afford enough freedom 
for growing children. Suburban homes, or those on the outskirts of 
cities or towns or close to public parks, give to the city children of the 
average family the best chance for proper growth and development. 
The plumbing, drainage, and other conveniences should be in a sanitary 
condition. The cellar and basement should be clean and dry. 

Pools of stagnant water and open cesspools are dangerous to health, 
and furnish breeding places for flies, mosquitoes, and other disease- 
carrying insects. 

Piles of garbage, manure, refuse, or rubbish of any sort should be 
avoided. 

Flies multiply rapidly in horse manure, garbage, and the like, and 
from these filthy dead things they travel to our homes ; and if the house 
is not properly screened they fly into the kitchen and dining room and 
walk over and contaminate the food we eat. 



student's textbook. 131 

Light and ventilation. — Sunshine is as necessary for a human being as 
for a plant, therefore it should be considered in selecting a house. 

The rooms should have a constant supply of fresh air and the rooms 
occupied most should be the ones to receive the most sunshine and air. 
To "'air" the rooms at intervals by opening the windows and doors is 
well, but a far better plan is to have a continual stream of fresh air flowing 
through. 

When the outside temperature is so extremely low that comfortable 
temperature can not be maintained with the windows open, outside air 
should be frequently admitted by opening wide the windows on opposite 
sides and flushing every part of the room for a few minutes. 

Heating. — It is desirable to have a heating s}~stem which is readily 
controlled, so that the temperature of the room may be raised or lowered 
when necessary. 

Hot-air furnaces are considered more healthful than steam or hot water, 
because they provide for the circulation of fresh moistened air. 

Gas and oil heaters are to be avoided if any other method can be had, 
as such heaters exhaust the air of even a large room in a short time. 

2. Furnishing the house. — Furniture should be simple and plainly 
carved. There should be no upholstered furniture nor heavy draperies 
to catch the dust. 

Floors should be covered with simple rugs which can be easily removed 
for cleaning. 

Beds should be of iron, the furnishings of which should consist of 
washable materials. Over the mattress put a washable pad of table 
padding and use washable blankets instead of heavy comforts. Feather 
beds should be avoided and pillows should be frequently aired. 

Among the most essential articles for furnishing the house are screens 
for both windows and doors. 

Everybody loves a neat home, and the poorest family can enjoy one if 
the following suggestions are carried out : 

1. Sanitary condition both inside and outside. 

2. Simple furniture, neatly arranged. 

3. Well-ventilated rooms. 

4. Regularly cleaned rooms. 

5. Clean cellar. 

6. Absence of dark places containing garbage, rubbish, or soiled 
clothing. 

7. Well-screened doors and windows. 

8. Absence of flies and mosquitoes. 

9. Neatly served meals. 

10. Clean, happy, healthy family. 

o 



